CLASS 12 PHYSICS · CHAPTER 2 · READ
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitanceस्थिरवैद्युत विभव तथा धारिताElectrostatic Potential and Capacitance
Potential and potential difference → V of a point charge, a dipole, many charges → equipotential surfaces → potential energy → conductors → dielectrics → capacitors, combinations and stored energy. NCERT order, with live simulations.विभव और विभवांतर → बिंदु आवेश, द्विध्रुव और अनेक आवेशों का V → समविभव पृष्ठ → स्थितिज ऊर्जा → चालक → परावैद्युत → संधारित्र, उनके संयोजन और संचित ऊर्जा। NCERT के क्रम में, लाइव सिमुलेशन के साथ।Potential aur potential difference → point charge, dipole aur kai charges ka V → equipotential surfaces → potential energy → conductors → dielectrics → capacitors, combinations aur stored energy. NCERT order, live simulations ke saath.
Board Notes: Pass to Topperबोर्ड नोट्स: पास से टॉपर तकBoard Notes: Pass se Topper tak🔥 Top topic came in 7 of 7 years · see what to learn first🔥 सबसे ऊपर वाला टॉपिक 7 में से 7 वर्ष आया · देखें पहले क्या पढ़ें🔥 Top topic 7 mein se 7 saal aaya · dekhiye pehle kya padhna haiDidn’t understand a paragraph? Tap it (or its Explain button) → Hindi / Hinglish / Simple English.कोई पैराग्राफ़ समझ नहीं आया? उस पर (या समझें बटन पर) टैप करें → अंग्रेज़ी / हिंग्लिश / सरल अंग्रेज़ी।Koi paragraph samajh nahi aaya? Us par (ya Samjho button par) tap kijiye → Hindi / English / Simple English.
Try it yourself — live simulationsख़ुद करके देखें — लाइव सिमुलेशनKhud karke dekhiye — live simulations
Diagrams in this chapterइस अध्याय के चित्रIs chapter ke diagrams
▶ Animate: dielectric slab in a capacitor▶ एनिमेट: संधारित्र में परावैद्युत पट्टिका▶ Animate: capacitor mein dielectric slabAnimated
▶ Animate: equipotential surfaces around a point charge▶ एनिमेट: बिंदु आवेश के चारों ओर समविभव पृष्ठ▶ Animate: point charge ke around equipotential surfacesAnimated · 3DIn this chapter (NCERT sections)इस अध्याय में (NCERT खंड)Is chapter mein (NCERT sections)
- 2.1IntroductionभूमिकाIntroduction
- 2.2Electrostatic Potentialस्थिरवैद्युत विभवElectrostatic Potential
- 2.3Potential due to a Point Chargeबिंदु आवेश के कारण विभवPoint Charge ka Potential
- 2.4Potential due to an Electric Dipoleविद्युत द्विध्रुव के कारण विभवElectric Dipole ka Potential
- 2.5Potential due to a System of Chargesआवेशों के निकाय के कारण विभवCharges ke System ka Potential
- 2.6Equipotential Surfacesसमविभव पृष्ठEquipotential Surfaces
- 2.6.1Relation between field and potentialक्षेत्र और विभव में संबंधField aur Potential ka Relation
- 2.7Potential Energy of a System of Chargesआवेशों के निकाय की स्थितिज ऊर्जाCharges ke System ki Potential Energy
- 2.8Potential Energy in an External Fieldबाह्य क्षेत्र में स्थितिज ऊर्जाExternal Field mein Potential Energy
- 2.9Electrostatics of Conductorsचालकों की स्थिरवैद्युतिकीConductors ki Electrostatics
- 2.10Dielectrics and Polarisationपरावैद्युत तथा ध्रुवणDielectrics aur Polarisation
- 2.11Capacitors and Capacitanceसंधारित्र तथा धारिताCapacitors aur Capacitance
- 2.12The Parallel Plate Capacitorसमांतर पट्टिका संधारित्रParallel Plate Capacitor
- 2.13Effect of Dielectric on Capacitanceधारिता पर परावैद्युत का प्रभावCapacitance par Dielectric ka Effect
- 2.14Combination of Capacitorsसंधारित्रों का संयोजनCapacitors ka Combination
- 2.14.1Capacitors in seriesश्रेणी क्रम में संधारित्रSeries mein Capacitors
- 2.14.2Capacitors in parallelपार्श्व क्रम में संधारित्रParallel mein Capacitors
- 2.15Energy Stored in a Capacitorसंधारित्र में संचित ऊर्जाCapacitor mein Stored Energy
2.1IntroductionभूमिकाIntroduction
Lift a stone and it gains potential energy; let go and that energy turns into kinetic energy. Gravity is a conservative force: the work it does depends only on where you start and finish, not on the path. The Coulomb force is also conservative (both are inverse-square, central forces). So, just like gravity, we can define an electrostatic potential energy — and from it the electrostatic potential.पत्थर उठाएँ तो उसमें स्थितिज ऊर्जा आती है; छोड़ें तो वही गतिज ऊर्जा बन जाती है। गुरुत्व एक संरक्षी बल है: इसका किया कार्य केवल प्रारंभिक और अंतिम स्थिति पर निर्भर है, पथ पर नहीं। कूलॉम बल भी संरक्षी है (दोनों व्युत्क्रम-वर्ग, केंद्रीय बल हैं)। इसलिए गुरुत्व की तरह हम स्थिरवैद्युत स्थितिज ऊर्जा परिभाषित कर सकते हैं — और उससे स्थिरवैद्युत विभव।Patthar uthaao to usmein potential energy aati hai; chhodiye to wahi kinetic energy ban jaati hai. Gravity ek conservative force hai: iska kiya work sirf start aur end position par depend karta hai, path par nahi. Coulomb force bhi conservative hai (dono inverse-square, central forces hain). Isliye gravity ki tarah hum electrostatic potential energy define kar sakte hain — aur usse electrostatic potential.Moving a charge against an electric force stores energy, just like lifting a stone. Potential tells us how much energy per coulomb.
Take a charge Q fixed at the origin and bring a small test charge q from point R to point P slowly (no acceleration), using an external force Fext = −qE that just balances the electric repulsion (see the forces). The work done by this external force is stored as potential energy: WRP = U(P) − U(R). Because the force is conservative, this work is the same for every path (path). Only differences of potential energy have meaning; we usually take U = 0 at infinity.मूल बिंदु पर स्थिर आवेश Q लें और एक छोटे परीक्षण आवेश q को बिंदु R से P तक धीरे-धीरे (बिना त्वरण) लाएँ, एक बाह्य बल Fext = −qE लगाकर जो विद्युत प्रतिकर्षण को ठीक संतुलित करे (बल देखें)। इस बाह्य बल का कार्य स्थितिज ऊर्जा के रूप में संचित होता है: WRP = U(P) − U(R)। बल संरक्षी है, इसलिए यह कार्य हर पथ के लिए समान है (पथ)। केवल स्थितिज ऊर्जा के अंतर का अर्थ है; प्रायः अनंत पर U = 0 लेते हैं।Origin par fixed charge Q lo aur ek chhote test charge q ko point R se P tak dheere-dheere (bina acceleration) laao, ek external force Fext = −qE lagakar jo electric repulsion ko exactly balance kare (forces dekhiye). Is external force ka work potential energy ban kar store hota hai: WRP = U(P) − U(R). Force conservative hai, isliye ye work har path ke liye same hai (path). Sirf potential energy ke difference ka matlab hai; aksar infinity par U = 0 lete hain.Keep a charge Q fixed at the origin. Now bring a small test charge q from point R to point P slowly (with no acceleration). To do this, we use an outside force Fext = −qE, which just balances the electric push (repulsion). The work done by this outside force gets stored as potential energy: WRP = U(P) − U(R). The electric force is conservative, so this work is the same for every path we take. Only the difference in potential energy has a meaning. Usually we choose U = 0 at infinity (very far away). 👉 (see the forces) 👉 (path)
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2.2Electrostatic Potentialस्थिरवैद्युत विभवElectrostatic Potential
Potential energy depends on the test charge q. Divide by q and we get something that depends only on the field: the electrostatic potential V. The potential at a point is the work done by an external force in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point, slowly. The difference V(P) − V(R) is the work per unit charge from R to P.स्थितिज ऊर्जा परीक्षण आवेश q पर निर्भर है। q से भाग दें तो ऐसी राशि मिलती है जो केवल क्षेत्र पर निर्भर है: स्थिरवैद्युत विभव V। किसी बिंदु पर विभव, एकांक धनात्मक आवेश को अनंत से उस बिंदु तक (धीरे-धीरे) लाने में बाह्य बल द्वारा किया गया कार्य है। अंतर V(P) − V(R), R से P तक प्रति एकांक आवेश कार्य है।Potential energy test charge q par depend karti hai. q se divide kijiye to aisi quantity milti hai jo sirf field par depend kare: electrostatic potential V. Kisi point par potential, unit positive charge ko infinity se us point tak (dheere-dheere) laane mein external force ka kiya work hai. Difference V(P) − V(R), R se P tak per unit charge work hai.Potential V = energy per coulomb. If V at a point is 5 V, bringing 1 C there from far away takes 5 J of work.
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2.3Potential due to a Point Chargeबिंदु आवेश के कारण विभवPoint Charge ka Potential
For a point charge Q at the origin, the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a distance r works out (by integrating the Coulomb force) to:मूल बिंदु पर बिंदु आवेश Q के लिए, एकांक धनात्मक आवेश को अनंत से दूरी r तक लाने का कार्य (कूलॉम बल का समाकलन करने पर) आता है:Origin par point charge Q ke liye, unit positive charge ko infinity se doori r tak laane ka work (Coulomb force ko integrate karne par) aata hai:Take a point charge Q at the origin. We bring a unit positive charge (a charge of +1 C) from infinity to a distance r. We find the work done by integrating (adding up) the Coulomb force along the way. The answer comes out as:
Notice that V depends only on r: all points at the same distance from Q have the same potential (see V vs r). Also, V is a scalar — no direction to worry about, which makes it easier to add up than the field.ध्यान दें, V केवल r पर निर्भर है: Q से समान दूरी वाले सभी बिंदुओं का विभव समान है (V बनाम r देखें)। साथ ही V अदिश है — दिशा की चिंता नहीं, इसलिए इसे जोड़ना क्षेत्र से आसान है।Dhyaan do, V sirf r par depend karta hai: Q se same doori wale saare points ka potential same hai (V vs r dekhiye). Saath hi V scalar hai — direction ki tension nahi, isliye ise jodna field se aasaan hai.Notice that V depends only on r. So all points at the same distance from Q have the same potential. Also, V is a scalar — it has no direction. This makes potentials easier to add than fields. 👉 (see V vs r)
(a) Find the potential at a point P 9 cm away from a charge of 4 × 10⁻⁷ C. (b) Hence find the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10⁻⁹ C from infinity to P. Does the answer depend on the path?(a) 4 × 10⁻⁷ C आवेश से 9 cm दूर बिंदु P पर विभव ज्ञात करें। (b) इससे 2 × 10⁻⁹ C आवेश को अनंत से P तक लाने का कार्य ज्ञात करें। क्या उत्तर पथ पर निर्भर है?(a) 4 × 10⁻⁷ C charge se 9 cm door point P par potential nikaalo. (b) Isse 2 × 10⁻⁹ C charge ko infinity se P tak laane ka work nikaalo. Kya answer path par depend karta hai?(a) Find the potential at a point P that is 9 cm away from a charge of 4 × 10⁻⁷ C. (b) Then find the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10⁻⁹ C from infinity to P. Does the answer depend on the path taken?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
(a) V = kQ/r = 9 × 10⁹ × 4 × 10⁻⁷ / 0.09 = 4 × 10⁴ V. (b) W = qV = 2 × 10⁻⁹ × 4 × 10⁴ = 8 × 10⁻⁵ J. No — the electrostatic force is conservative, so the work is the same along every path.(a) V = kQ/r = 9 × 10⁹ × 4 × 10⁻⁷ / 0.09 = 4 × 10⁴ V। (b) W = qV = 2 × 10⁻⁹ × 4 × 10⁴ = 8 × 10⁻⁵ J। नहीं — स्थिरवैद्युत बल संरक्षी है, इसलिए हर पथ पर कार्य समान है।(a) V = kQ/r = 9 × 10⁹ × 4 × 10⁻⁷ / 0.09 = 4 × 10⁴ V. (b) W = qV = 2 × 10⁻⁹ × 4 × 10⁴ = 8 × 10⁻⁵ J. Nahi — electrostatic force conservative hai, isliye har path par work same hai.(a) Use V = kQ/r = 9 × 10⁹ × 4 × 10⁻⁷ / 0.09 = 4 × 10⁴ V. (b) Work W = qV = 2 × 10⁻⁹ × 4 × 10⁴ = 8 × 10⁻⁵ J. No, it does not depend on the path. The electrostatic force is conservative, so the work is the same along every path.
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2.4Potential due to an Electric Dipoleविद्युत द्विध्रुव के कारण विभवElectric Dipole ka Potential
Take a dipole of charges ±q separated by 2a, with moment p = q·2a from −q to +q. At a point P at distance r from the centre, making angle θ with p, the potential is the sum kq/r₁ − kq/r₂ (see the geometry). For r ≫ a this simplifies to:±q आवेशों का द्विध्रुव लें जो 2a दूरी पर हैं, आघूर्ण p = q·2a (−q से +q)। केंद्र से r दूरी पर, p से θ कोण बनाते बिंदु P पर विभव kq/r₁ − kq/r₂ का योग है (ज्यामिति देखें)। r ≫ a के लिए यह सरल होकर बनता है:±q charges ka dipole lo jo 2a doori par hain, moment p = q·2a (−q se +q). Centre se r doori par, p se θ angle banaate point P par potential kq/r₁ − kq/r₂ ka sum hai (geometry dekhiye). r ≫ a ke liye ye simple hokar banta hai:Take a dipole made of charges +q and −q kept 2a apart. Its moment is p = q·2a, pointing from −q to +q. Take a point P at distance r from the centre, at an angle θ to p. The potential at P is the sum of the two potentials: kq/r₁ − kq/r₂. When r is much bigger than a (r ≫ a), this becomes simple: 👉 (see the geometry)
Two differences from a single charge: (1) a dipole’s potential depends on the angle θ as well as r; (2) it falls as 1/r², not 1/r (the dipole’s field falls as 1/r³). Every point on the equatorial plane is equally far from +q and −q, so V = 0 there — even though the field there is not zero!एकल आवेश से दो अंतर: (1) द्विध्रुव का विभव r के साथ कोण θ पर भी निर्भर है; (2) यह 1/r से नहीं, 1/r² से घटता है (द्विध्रुव का क्षेत्र 1/r³ से)। विषुवतीय तल का हर बिंदु +q और −q से बराबर दूरी पर है, इसलिए वहाँ V = 0 — जबकि वहाँ क्षेत्र शून्य नहीं है!Single charge se do differences: (1) dipole ka potential r ke saath angle θ par bhi depend karta hai; (2) ye 1/r se nahi, 1/r² se ghatata hai (dipole ka field 1/r³ se). Equatorial plane ka har point +q aur −q se barabar doori par hai, isliye wahan V = 0 — jabki wahan field zero nahi hai!A dipole is different from a single charge in two ways. (1) Its potential depends on the angle θ as well as on r. (2) It falls as 1/r², not as 1/r. (The dipole’s field falls as 1/r³.) Every point on the equatorial plane is at the same distance from +q and from −q. So V = 0 there — even though the field there is not zero!
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2.5Potential due to a System of Chargesआवेशों के निकाय के कारण विभवCharges ke System ka Potential
Potentials follow superposition too, and since V is a scalar we simply add numbers (with signs): V = k(q₁/r₁ + q₂/r₂ + … + qₙ/rₙ). For a continuous charge distribution, add up k ρΔV/r over all small elements. A useful result: for a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R, V = kq/r outside (as if all the charge were at the centre), and V = kq/R, constant, everywhere inside — because the field inside is zero, no work is needed to move a charge inside.विभव भी अध्यारोपण मानते हैं, और V अदिश है इसलिए बस संख्याएँ (चिह्न सहित) जोड़ते हैं: V = k(q₁/r₁ + q₂/r₂ + … + qₙ/rₙ)। संतत वितरण के लिए सभी छोटे अवयवों का k ρΔV/r जोड़ें। एक उपयोगी परिणाम: R त्रिज्या के एकसमान आवेशित गोलीय कोश के लिए बाहर V = kq/r (मानो सारा आवेश केंद्र पर हो), और अंदर हर जगह V = kq/R, स्थिर — क्योंकि अंदर क्षेत्र शून्य है, आवेश को अंदर चलाने में कोई कार्य नहीं लगता।Potentials bhi superposition follow karte hain, aur V scalar hai isliye bas numbers (sign ke saath) jodte hain: V = k(q₁/r₁ + q₂/r₂ + … + qₙ/rₙ). Continuous distribution ke liye saare chhote elements ka k ρΔV/r jodiye. Ek useful result: R radius ke uniformly charged spherical shell ke liye bahar V = kq/r (jaise saara charge centre par ho), aur andar har jagah V = kq/R, constant — kyunki andar field zero hai, charge ko andar move karne mein koi work nahi lagta.Potentials also follow superposition. Since V is a scalar, we just add the numbers (keeping the signs): V = k(q₁/r₁ + q₂/r₂ + … + qₙ/rₙ). If the charge is spread out continuously, we add k ρΔV/r for all the small pieces. A useful result: think of a uniformly charged spherical shell (a hollow ball) of radius R. Outside it, V = kq/r, as if all the charge sat at the centre. Inside it, V = kq/R, the same everywhere. This is because the field inside is zero, so no work is needed to move a charge around inside.
Charges 3 × 10⁻⁸ C and −2 × 10⁻⁸ C are 15 cm apart. Where on the line joining them is the potential zero? (Take V = 0 at infinity.)3 × 10⁻⁸ C और −2 × 10⁻⁸ C के आवेश 15 cm दूर हैं। उन्हें मिलाने वाली रेखा पर विभव कहाँ शून्य है? (अनंत पर V = 0 लें।)3 × 10⁻⁸ C aur −2 × 10⁻⁸ C ke charges 15 cm door hain. Unhe jodne wali line par potential kahan zero hai? (Infinity par V = 0 lo.)Two charges, 3 × 10⁻⁸ C and −2 × 10⁻⁸ C, are 15 cm apart. At which points on the line joining them is the potential zero? (Take V = 0 at infinity.)
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
Put the positive charge at x = 0 and the negative one at x = 15 cm. Between them, at x (cm): 3/x = 2/(15 − x) → x = 9 cm. Outside, beyond the negative charge: 3/x = 2/(x − 15) → x = 45 cm. (On the other side of the positive charge V can never be zero, because there the bigger charge is always nearer.)धनावेश x = 0 पर और ऋणावेश x = 15 cm पर रखें। दोनों के बीच x (cm) पर: 3/x = 2/(15 − x) → x = 9 cm। बाहर, ऋणावेश के आगे: 3/x = 2/(x − 15) → x = 45 cm। (धनावेश की दूसरी ओर V कभी शून्य नहीं हो सकता, क्योंकि वहाँ बड़ा आवेश हमेशा पास रहता है।)Positive charge x = 0 par aur negative x = 15 cm par rakhiye. Dono ke beech x (cm) par: 3/x = 2/(15 − x) → x = 9 cm. Bahar, negative charge ke aage: 3/x = 2/(x − 15) → x = 45 cm. (Positive charge ki doosri taraf V kabhi zero nahi ho sakta, kyunki wahan bada charge hamesha paas rehta hai.)Put the positive charge at x = 0 and the negative charge at x = 15 cm. Between the two charges, at a point x (in cm), the two potentials must cancel: 3/x = 2/(15 − x). This gives x = 9 cm. Outside, beyond the negative charge: 3/x = 2/(x − 15). This gives x = 45 cm. (On the other side, beyond the positive charge, V can never be zero. There the bigger charge is always nearer, so it always wins.)
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2.6Equipotential Surfacesसमविभव पृष्ठEquipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential has the same value at every point. For a point charge, V = kq/r is the same wherever r is the same, so the equipotentials are concentric spheres around the charge. For a uniform field, they are planes perpendicular to the field (see both).समविभव पृष्ठ वह पृष्ठ है जिसके हर बिंदु पर विभव का मान समान हो। बिंदु आवेश के लिए V = kq/r समान r पर समान है, इसलिए समविभव पृष्ठ आवेश के चारों ओर संकेंद्री गोले हैं। एकसमान क्षेत्र के लिए ये क्षेत्र के लंबवत तल हैं (दोनों देखें)।Equipotential surface wo surface hai jiske har point par potential same ho. Point charge ke liye V = kq/r same r par same hai, isliye equipotentials charge ke chaaron taraf concentric spheres hain. Uniform field ke liye ye field ke perpendicular planes hain (dono dekhiye).An equipotential is like a contour line on a map: every point on it is at the same "height" (potential).
The field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface. Why? Moving a charge along an equipotential needs no work (V does not change). If E had a part along the surface, that part would do work. So E has no part along the surface — it must be normal to it, pointing towards lower potential.क्षेत्र हमेशा समविभव पृष्ठ के लंबवत होता है। क्यों? समविभव पृष्ठ पर आवेश को चलाने में कोई कार्य नहीं लगता (V नहीं बदलता)। यदि E का कोई भाग पृष्ठ के अनुदिश होता, तो वह कार्य करता। इसलिए पृष्ठ के अनुदिश E का कोई भाग नहीं — E उसके अभिलंब है, और कम विभव की ओर।Field hamesha equipotential surface ke perpendicular hota hai. Kyun? Equipotential par charge ko move karne mein koi work nahi lagta (V nahi badalta). Agar E ka koi part surface ke along hota, to wo work karta. Isliye surface ke along E ka koi part nahi — E uske normal hai, aur kam potential ki taraf.The electric field is always perpendicular (at right angles) to an equipotential surface (a surface where V is the same everywhere). Why? Moving a charge along an equipotential surface needs no work, because V does not change. If E had a part along the surface, that part would do work. So E has no part along the surface. It must be normal (at right angles) to it, and it points towards lower potential.
Red means high potential, blue means low. Drag the charges and watch the dashed equipotentials and the field lines move together, always at right angles. Tap anywhere to read V there.लाल यानी अधिक विभव, नीला यानी कम। आवेश खिसकाएँ और धराशायी समविभव रेखाएँ व क्षेत्र रेखाएँ साथ-साथ, हमेशा समकोण पर, बदलती देखें। कहीं भी टैप करके वहाँ V पढ़ें।Red matlab zyada potential, blue matlab kam. Charges drag kijiye aur dashed equipotentials aur field lines saath-saath, hamesha right angle par, badalte dekhiye. Kahin bhi tap karke wahan V padhiye.
2.6.1Relation between field and potentialक्षेत्र और विभव में संबंधField aur Potential ka Relation
Take two close equipotentials, V and V + δV, separated by a small distance δl along the normal. Moving a unit positive charge across, against the field, needs work E δl = −δV. So the field equals the rate at which potential falls with distance, measured perpendicular to the equipotentials:दो पास-पास के समविभव पृष्ठ लें, V और V + δV, जो अभिलंब के अनुदिश छोटी दूरी δl पर हैं। एकांक धनावेश को क्षेत्र के विरुद्ध पार ले जाने का कार्य E δl = −δV है। अतः क्षेत्र, समविभव पृष्ठों के लंबवत मापी गई दूरी के साथ विभव घटने की दर के बराबर है:Do paas-paas ke equipotentials lo, V aur V + δV, jo normal ke along chhoti doori δl par hain. Unit positive charge ko field ke against cross karane ka work E δl = −δV hai. Isliye field, equipotentials ke perpendicular naapi gayi doori ke saath potential ghatne ki rate ke barabar hai:Take two equipotential surfaces close to each other, with potentials V and V + δV. They are a small distance δl apart, measured along the normal. To move a unit positive charge across, against the field, we need work E δl = −δV. So the field is equal to the rate at which the potential drops with distance, measured at right angles to the equipotential surfaces:
Fields of a +ve point charge and a −ve point charge: in each case P is nearer the charge than Q (for the + charge), and A is nearer than B (for the − charge). Give the signs of (a) V(P) − V(Q) and V(B) − V(A); (b) the change in PE of a small negative charge moved from Q to P and from A to B; (c) the work done by the field in moving a small positive charge from Q to P.धन और ऋण बिंदु आवेश के क्षेत्र: + आवेश के लिए P, Q से अधिक पास है; − आवेश के लिए A, B से अधिक पास है। चिह्न बताएँ: (a) V(P) − V(Q) और V(B) − V(A); (b) छोटे ऋण आवेश को Q से P और A से B ले जाने पर स्थितिज ऊर्जा में परिवर्तन; (c) छोटे धन आवेश को Q से P ले जाने में क्षेत्र द्वारा कार्य।Positive aur negative point charge ke fields: + charge ke liye P, Q se zyada paas hai; − charge ke liye A, B se zyada paas hai. Sign bataiye: (a) V(P) − V(Q) aur V(B) − V(A); (b) chhote negative charge ko Q se P aur A se B le jaane par PE ka change; (c) chhote positive charge ko Q se P le jaane mein field ka work.Look at the fields of a positive point charge and of a negative point charge. For the + charge, point P is nearer to the charge than point Q. For the − charge, point A is nearer than point B. Give the signs of: (a) V(P) − V(Q) and V(B) − V(A); (b) the change in potential energy (PE) of a small negative charge moved from Q to P, and from A to B; (c) the work done by the field in moving a small positive charge from Q to P.
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
(a) V ∝ 1/r: nearer a + charge V is higher, so V(P) − V(Q) is positive. Nearer a − charge V is more negative, so V(A) is lower and V(B) − V(A) is positive. (b) A negative charge has PE = qV, so it has more PE where V is lower: U(Q) > U(P) and U(A) > U(B). So U(Q) − U(P) and U(A) − U(B) are both positive (the negative charge loses PE as it moves towards higher V). (c) Moving a + charge from Q to P is against the repulsion, so the field does negative work.(a) V ∝ 1/r: + आवेश के पास V अधिक, इसलिए V(P) − V(Q) धनात्मक। − आवेश के पास V अधिक ऋणात्मक, इसलिए V(A) कम और V(B) − V(A) धनात्मक। (b) ऋण आवेश की PE = qV, इसलिए जहाँ V कम है वहाँ PE अधिक है: U(Q) > U(P) और U(A) > U(B)। अतः U(Q) − U(P) और U(A) − U(B) दोनों धनात्मक हैं (ऋण आवेश अधिक V की ओर जाते हुए PE खोता है)। (c) + आवेश को Q से P ले जाना प्रतिकर्षण के विरुद्ध है, इसलिए क्षेत्र का कार्य ऋणात्मक है।(a) V ∝ 1/r: + charge ke paas V zyada, isliye V(P) − V(Q) positive. − charge ke paas V zyada negative, isliye V(A) kam aur V(B) − V(A) positive. (b) Negative charge ki PE = qV, isliye jahan V kam hai wahan PE zyada hai: U(Q) > U(P) aur U(A) > U(B). Isliye U(Q) − U(P) aur U(A) − U(B) dono positive hain (negative charge zyada V ki taraf jaate hue PE khota hai). (c) + charge ko Q se P le jaana repulsion ke against hai, isliye field ka work negative hai.(a) V ∝ 1/r. Near a + charge, V is higher. So V(P) − V(Q) is positive. Near a − charge, V is more negative. So V(A) is lower, and V(B) − V(A) is positive. (b) A negative charge has PE = qV. So it has more PE where V is lower. Thus U(Q) > U(P) and U(A) > U(B). So U(Q) − U(P) and U(A) − U(B) are both positive. (The negative charge loses PE as it moves towards higher V.) (c) Moving a + charge from Q to P means pushing it against the repulsion. So the field does negative work.
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2.7Potential Energy of a System of Chargesआवेशों के निकाय की स्थितिज ऊर्जाCharges ke System ki Potential Energy
How much work does it take to assemble charges q₁ and q₂ at separation r₁₂, starting with both at infinity? Bringing q₁ costs nothing (no field yet). Bringing q₂ to distance r₁₂ costs q₂ × (kq₁/r₁₂). This work is stored as the potential energy of the pair:अनंत पर पड़े आवेशों q₁ और q₂ को r₁₂ दूरी पर इकट्ठा करने में कितना कार्य लगता है? q₁ को लाने में कुछ नहीं (अभी कोई क्षेत्र नहीं)। q₂ को r₁₂ दूरी तक लाने में q₂ × (kq₁/r₁₂)। यह कार्य युग्म की स्थितिज ऊर्जा बनकर संचित होता है:Infinity par pade charges q₁ aur q₂ ko r₁₂ doori par assemble karne mein kitna work lagta hai? q₁ ko laane mein kuch nahi (abhi koi field nahi). q₂ ko r₁₂ doori tak laane mein q₂ × (kq₁/r₁₂). Ye work pair ki potential energy ban kar store hota hai:How much work is needed to bring together (assemble) two charges q₁ and q₂ at a distance r₁₂, if both start at infinity? Bringing q₁ costs nothing, because there is no field yet. Bringing q₂ to a distance r₁₂ costs q₂ × (kq₁/r₁₂). This work is stored as the potential energy of the pair:
For three charges, bring them in one by one; the total does not depend on the order. The answer has one term for every pair (see q₃): U = k(q₁q₂/r₁₂ + q₁q₃/r₁₃ + q₂q₃/r₂₃). The same rule works for any number of charges.तीन आवेशों के लिए उन्हें एक-एक करके लाएँ; कुल कार्य क्रम पर निर्भर नहीं करता। उत्तर में हर युग्म का एक पद होता है (q₃ देखें): U = k(q₁q₂/r₁₂ + q₁q₃/r₁₃ + q₂q₃/r₂₃)। यही नियम कितने भी आवेशों के लिए चलता है।Teen charges ke liye unhe ek-ek karke laao; total work order par depend nahi karta. Answer mein har pair ka ek term hota hai (q₃ dekhiye): U = k(q₁q₂/r₁₂ + q₁q₃/r₁₃ + q₂q₃/r₂₃). Yahi rule kitne bhi charges ke liye chalta hai.For three charges, bring them in one at a time. The total work does not depend on the order. The answer has one term for each pair of charges: U = k(q₁q₂/r₁₂ + q₁q₃/r₁₃ + q₂q₃/r₂₃). The same rule works for any number of charges. 👉 (see q₃)
Four charges +q, −q, +q, −q sit at the corners A, B, C, D of a square of side d (alternating signs). (a) Find the work required to put this arrangement together. (b) How much extra work is needed to bring a charge q₀ to the centre E?भुजा d के वर्ग के कोनों A, B, C, D पर चार आवेश +q, −q, +q, −q (एकांतर चिह्न) हैं। (a) यह व्यवस्था बनाने का कार्य ज्ञात करें। (b) केंद्र E पर आवेश q₀ लाने में कितना अतिरिक्त कार्य लगेगा?Side d ke square ke corners A, B, C, D par chaar charges +q, −q, +q, −q (alternate signs) hain. (a) Ye arrangement banaane ka work nikaalo. (b) Centre E par charge q₀ laane mein kitna extra work lagega?Four charges +q, −q, +q, −q sit at the corners A, B, C, D of a square of side d (the signs take turns). (a) Find the work needed to set up this arrangement. (b) How much more work is needed to bring a charge q₀ to the centre E?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
(a) There are 6 pairs: 4 sides (unlike charges, distance d) and 2 diagonals (like charges, distance √2 d). U = k[4(−q²/d) + 2(q²/(√2 d))] = −(kq²/d)(4 − √2). (b) At the centre all four charges are at the same distance, and their charges add to zero, so V(E) = 0: no extra work is needed.(a) 6 युग्म हैं: 4 भुजाएँ (विजातीय, दूरी d) और 2 विकर्ण (सजातीय, दूरी √2 d)। U = k[4(−q²/d) + 2(q²/(√2 d))] = −(kq²/d)(4 − √2)। (b) केंद्र पर चारों आवेश समान दूरी पर हैं और उनका योग शून्य है, इसलिए V(E) = 0: कोई अतिरिक्त कार्य नहीं।(a) 6 pairs hain: 4 sides (unlike charges, doori d) aur 2 diagonals (like charges, doori √2 d). U = k[4(−q²/d) + 2(q²/(√2 d))] = −(kq²/d)(4 − √2). (b) Centre par chaaron charges same doori par hain aur unka sum zero hai, isliye V(E) = 0: koi extra work nahi.(a) There are 6 pairs of charges. 4 pairs are along the sides (unlike charges, distance d). 2 pairs are along the diagonals (like charges, distance √2 d). So U = k[4(−q²/d) + 2(q²/(√2 d))] = −(kq²/d)(4 − √2). (b) At the centre, all four charges are at the same distance, and their charges add up to zero. So V(E) = 0, and no extra work is needed.
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2.8Potential Energy in an External Fieldबाह्य क्षेत्र में स्थितिज ऊर्जाExternal Field mein Potential Energy
Now suppose the field is produced by some other, fixed charges (an external field) with potential V(r) at each point. Then:अब मान लें कि क्षेत्र किन्हीं दूसरे, स्थिर आवेशों से बना है (बाह्य क्षेत्र), जिसका हर बिंदु पर विभव V(r) है। तब:Ab maano field kinhi doosre, fixed charges se bana hai (external field), jiska har point par potential V(r) hai. Tab:Now suppose the field comes from some other charges that are kept fixed (an external field). This field has a potential V(r) at each point. Then:
- 2.8.1 A single charge: potential energy of q at r is U = qV(r).2.8.1 एक आवेश: r पर q की स्थितिज ऊर्जा U = qV(r)।2.8.1 Ek charge: r par q ki potential energy U = qV(r).2.8.1 A single charge: the potential energy of a charge q at position r is U = qV(r).
- 2.8.2 Two charges: U = q₁V(r₁) + q₂V(r₂) + k q₁q₂/r₁₂ — each charge’s energy in the external field plus their mutual energy.2.8.2 दो आवेश: U = q₁V(r₁) + q₂V(r₂) + k q₁q₂/r₁₂ — हर आवेश की बाह्य क्षेत्र में ऊर्जा और उनकी पारस्परिक ऊर्जा।2.8.2 Do charges: U = q₁V(r₁) + q₂V(r₂) + k q₁q₂/r₁₂ — har charge ki external field mein energy plus unki mutual energy.2.8.2 Two charges: U = q₁V(r₁) + q₂V(r₂) + k q₁q₂/r₁₂. This is the energy of each charge in the external field, plus the energy between the two charges themselves (mutual energy).
- 2.8.3 A dipole in a uniform field: the torque does work as the dipole turns. Taking U = 0 when the dipole is perpendicular to the field (θ = 90°), U(θ) = −pE cos θ = −p·E.2.8.3 एकसमान क्षेत्र में द्विध्रुव: घूमते समय बल आघूर्ण कार्य करता है। द्विध्रुव के क्षेत्र के लंबवत होने पर (θ = 90°) U = 0 लेने पर, U(θ) = −pE cos θ = −p·E।2.8.3 Uniform field mein dipole: ghoomte waqt torque work karta hai. Dipole ke field ke perpendicular hone par (θ = 90°) U = 0 lene par, U(θ) = −pE cos θ = −p·E.2.8.3 A dipole in a uniform field: as the dipole turns, the torque does work. We take U = 0 when the dipole is at right angles to the field (θ = 90°). Then U(θ) = −pE cos θ = −p·E.
Energy is measured in joules, or for single particles in electron volts: 1 eV is the energy an electron gains when accelerated through a potential difference of 1 V, so 1 eV = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ J.ऊर्जा जूल में, या एकल कणों के लिए इलेक्ट्रॉन वोल्ट में मापी जाती है: 1 eV वह ऊर्जा है जो इलेक्ट्रॉन 1 V विभवांतर से त्वरित होने पर पाता है, अतः 1 eV = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ J।Energy joule mein, ya single particles ke liye electron volt mein naapi jaati hai: 1 eV wo energy hai jo electron 1 V potential difference se accelerate hone par paata hai, isliye 1 eV = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ J.Energy is measured in joules. For single tiny particles, we often use electron volts (eV). 1 eV is the energy an electron gains when it is speeded up through a potential difference of 1 V. So 1 eV = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ J.
(a) Find the potential energy of charges 7 μC and −2 μC placed at (−9 cm, 0, 0) and (9 cm, 0, 0), with no external field. (b) How much work is needed to separate them to infinity? (c) The same pair is placed in an external field with potential V = A/r, where A = 9 × 10⁵ V m. What is the energy now?(a) (−9 cm, 0, 0) और (9 cm, 0, 0) पर रखे 7 μC और −2 μC आवेशों की स्थितिज ऊर्जा ज्ञात करें (कोई बाह्य क्षेत्र नहीं)। (b) उन्हें अनंत तक अलग करने में कितना कार्य लगेगा? (c) यही युग्म V = A/r विभव वाले बाह्य क्षेत्र में रखा है, A = 9 × 10⁵ V m। अब ऊर्जा कितनी है?(a) (−9 cm, 0, 0) aur (9 cm, 0, 0) par rakhe 7 μC aur −2 μC charges ki potential energy nikaalo (koi external field nahi). (b) Unhe infinity tak alag karne mein kitna work lagega? (c) Yahi pair V = A/r potential wale external field mein rakha hai, A = 9 × 10⁵ V m. Ab energy kitni hai?(a) Find the potential energy of two charges, 7 μC and −2 μC, placed at (−9 cm, 0, 0) and (9 cm, 0, 0), when there is no external field. (b) How much work is needed to pull them apart to infinity? (c) Now the same pair is placed in an external field whose potential is V = A/r, where A = 9 × 10⁵ V m. What is the energy now?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
(a) U = kq₁q₂/r = 9 × 10⁹ × 7 × (−2) × 10⁻¹² / 0.18 = −0.7 J. (b) W = 0 − (−0.7) = 0.7 J. (c) Each charge is 0.09 m from the origin: q₁V₁ = 7 × 10⁻⁶ × 9 × 10⁵/0.09 = 70 J and q₂V₂ = −2 × 10⁻⁶ × 9 × 10⁵/0.09 = −20 J. Total U = 70 − 20 − 0.7 = 49.3 J.(a) U = kq₁q₂/r = 9 × 10⁹ × 7 × (−2) × 10⁻¹² / 0.18 = −0.7 J। (b) W = 0 − (−0.7) = 0.7 J। (c) हर आवेश मूल बिंदु से 0.09 m पर है: q₁V₁ = 7 × 10⁻⁶ × 9 × 10⁵/0.09 = 70 J और q₂V₂ = −2 × 10⁻⁶ × 9 × 10⁵/0.09 = −20 J। कुल U = 70 − 20 − 0.7 = 49.3 J।(a) U = kq₁q₂/r = 9 × 10⁹ × 7 × (−2) × 10⁻¹² / 0.18 = −0.7 J. (b) W = 0 − (−0.7) = 0.7 J. (c) Har charge origin se 0.09 m par hai: q₁V₁ = 7 × 10⁻⁶ × 9 × 10⁵/0.09 = 70 J aur q₂V₂ = −2 × 10⁻⁶ × 9 × 10⁵/0.09 = −20 J. Total U = 70 − 20 − 0.7 = 49.3 J.(a) U = kq₁q₂/r = 9 × 10⁹ × 7 × (−2) × 10⁻¹² / 0.18 = −0.7 J. (b) Work needed = final energy − starting energy: W = 0 − (−0.7) = 0.7 J. (c) Each charge is 0.09 m from the origin. Energy of the first charge in the outside field: q₁V₁ = 7 × 10⁻⁶ × 9 × 10⁵/0.09 = 70 J. Energy of the second: q₂V₂ = −2 × 10⁻⁶ × 9 × 10⁵/0.09 = −20 J. Add the energy between them too. Total U = 70 − 20 − 0.7 = 49.3 J.
A molecule has a permanent dipole moment of 10⁻²⁹ C m. A mole of the substance is polarised (at low temperature) by a field of 10⁶ V m⁻¹. The field direction is suddenly turned by 60°. Estimate the heat released as the dipoles realign.एक अणु का स्थायी द्विध्रुव आघूर्ण 10⁻²⁹ C m है। पदार्थ का एक मोल (निम्न ताप पर) 10⁶ V m⁻¹ क्षेत्र से ध्रुवित है। क्षेत्र की दिशा अचानक 60° घुमा दी जाती है। द्विध्रुवों के नई दिशा में आने पर निकली ऊष्मा का आकलन करें।Ek molecule ka permanent dipole moment 10⁻²⁹ C m hai. Substance ka ek mole (low temperature par) 10⁶ V m⁻¹ field se polarised hai. Field ki direction achanak 60° ghuma di jaati hai. Dipoles ke nayi direction mein aane par nikli heat estimate kijiye.A molecule has a permanent dipole moment of 10⁻²⁹ C m. One mole of this substance is polarised (all dipoles lined up, at low temperature) by a field of 10⁶ V m⁻¹. Then the field direction is suddenly turned by 60°. Estimate the heat given out as the dipoles line up again with the new field.
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
Total moment p = 6 × 10²³ × 10⁻²⁹ = 6 × 10⁻⁶ C m. Initially θ = 60° to the new field: U₁ = −pE cos 60° = −3 J. Finally aligned: U₂ = −pE = −6 J. Energy lost = U₁ − U₂ = 3 J, released as heat.कुल आघूर्ण p = 6 × 10²³ × 10⁻²⁹ = 6 × 10⁻⁶ C m। शुरू में नए क्षेत्र से θ = 60°: U₁ = −pE cos 60° = −3 J। अंत में सीध में: U₂ = −pE = −6 J। ऊर्जा में कमी = U₁ − U₂ = 3 J, जो ऊष्मा बनकर निकलती है।Total moment p = 6 × 10²³ × 10⁻²⁹ = 6 × 10⁻⁶ C m. Shuru mein naye field se θ = 60°: U₁ = −pE cos 60° = −3 J. End mein aligned: U₂ = −pE = −6 J. Energy loss = U₁ − U₂ = 3 J, jo heat ban kar nikalti hai.Total dipole moment p = 6 × 10²³ × 10⁻²⁹ = 6 × 10⁻⁶ C m. At the start, the dipoles are at θ = 60° to the new field, so U₁ = −pE cos 60° = −3 J. At the end, they are lined up with the field, so U₂ = −pE = −6 J. The energy lost = U₁ − U₂ = 3 J. This energy comes out as heat.
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2.9Electrostatics of Conductorsचालकों की स्थिरवैद्युतिकीConductors ki Electrostatics
A metal has free electrons that move at the slightest push. In a static situation they arrange themselves so that nothing more moves. This gives six important results (see the conductor):धातु में मुक्त इलेक्ट्रॉन होते हैं जो ज़रा-से धक्के से चल पड़ते हैं। स्थिर अवस्था में वे ऐसे व्यवस्थित हो जाते हैं कि आगे कुछ न चले। इससे छह महत्वपूर्ण परिणाम निकलते हैं (चालक देखें):Metal mein free electrons hote hain jo zara se dhakke se chal padte hain. Static situation mein wo aise arrange ho jaate hain ki aage kuch na chale. Isse chhe important results nikalte hain (conductor dekhiye):A metal has free electrons that move with the smallest push. When everything is at rest (static), these electrons settle so that nothing moves any more. This gives six important results: 👉 (see the conductor)
- 1. Inside a conductor, E = 0. If there were a field, the free electrons would keep moving.1. चालक के अंदर E = 0। क्षेत्र होता तो मुक्त इलेक्ट्रॉन चलते रहते।1. Conductor ke andar E = 0. Field hota to free electrons chalte rehte.1. Inside a conductor, E = 0. If there were a field inside, the free electrons would keep moving.
- 2. At the surface, E is normal to the surface — a tangential part would push charges along the surface.2. पृष्ठ पर E पृष्ठ के अभिलंब है — स्पर्शरेखीय भाग आवेशों को पृष्ठ पर धकेलता।2. Surface par E surface ke normal hai — tangential part charges ko surface par dhakelta.2. At the surface, E is normal (at right angles) to the surface. If E had a part along the surface, it would push charges along the surface.
- 3. The interior has no excess charge; any excess charge sits on the surface (Gauss’s law with E = 0 inside).3. अंदर कोई अतिरिक्त आवेश नहीं; अतिरिक्त आवेश पृष्ठ पर रहता है (अंदर E = 0 के साथ गाउस नियम)।3. Andar koi excess charge nahi; excess charge surface par rehta hai (andar E = 0 ke saath Gauss’s law).3. There is no extra charge inside the conductor. Any extra charge sits only on the surface. (This comes from Gauss’s law, with E = 0 inside.)
- 4. The potential is the same everywhere inside the conductor and on its surface (E = 0 means no work to move charge).4. चालक के अंदर और पृष्ठ पर विभव हर जगह समान है (E = 0 यानी आवेश चलाने में कार्य नहीं)।4. Conductor ke andar aur surface par potential har jagah same hai (E = 0 matlab charge move karne mein work nahi).4. The potential is the same everywhere inside the conductor and on its surface. (E = 0 means no work is needed to move a charge, so V does not change.)
- 5. Just outside a charged conductor, E = (σ/ε₀) n̂, where σ is the local surface charge density.5. आवेशित चालक के ठीक बाहर E = (σ/ε₀) n̂, जहाँ σ स्थानीय पृष्ठ आवेश घनत्व है।5. Charged conductor ke theek bahar E = (σ/ε₀) n̂, jahan σ local surface charge density hai.5. Just outside a charged conductor, E = (σ/ε₀) n̂. Here σ is the surface charge density at that spot, and n̂ points straight out of the surface.
- 6. Electrostatic shielding: the field inside a cavity in a conductor (with no charge inside the cavity) is zero, whatever the charges or fields outside.6. स्थिरवैद्युत परिरक्षण: चालक के किसी कोटर में (जिसमें कोई आवेश न हो) क्षेत्र शून्य होता है, बाहर कैसे भी आवेश या क्षेत्र हों।6. Electrostatic shielding: conductor ki kisi cavity mein (jismein koi charge na ho) field zero hota hai, bahar kaise bhi charges ya fields hon.6. Electrostatic shielding: take a conductor with a cavity (an empty space inside it), with no charge inside the cavity. The field inside the cavity is zero, whatever charges or fields are outside.
Where you see this: during a thunderstorm, sitting inside a car is safer than standing outside — the metal body shields the inside. Sensitive instruments are kept inside metal boxes for the same reason.यह कहाँ दिखता है: आँधी-तूफ़ान में बाहर खड़े रहने से कार के अंदर बैठना अधिक सुरक्षित है — धातु का ढाँचा अंदर का परिरक्षण करता है। इसी कारण संवेदनशील उपकरण धातु के डिब्बों में रखे जाते हैं।Ye kahan dikhta hai: toofan mein bahar khade rehne se car ke andar baithna zyada safe hai — metal body andar ki shielding karti hai. Isi wajah se sensitive instruments metal boxes mein rakhe jaate hain.Where you see this in daily life: during a thunderstorm, sitting inside a car is safer than standing outside. The metal body of the car shields the inside. For the same reason, delicate instruments are kept inside metal boxes.
(a) A comb run through dry hair attracts bits of paper. Why? What happens if the hair is wet or it is a rainy day? (b) Ordinary rubber is an insulator, yet aircraft tyres are made slightly conducting. Why? (c) Vehicles carrying inflammable material have metallic ropes touching the ground. Why?(a) सूखे बालों में फेरी गई कंघी काग़ज़ के टुकड़े खींचती है। क्यों? बाल गीले हों या बरसात का दिन हो तो क्या होगा? (b) साधारण रबर विद्युतरोधी है, फिर भी विमानों के टायर थोड़े चालक बनाए जाते हैं। क्यों? (c) ज्वलनशील पदार्थ ले जाने वाले वाहनों में धातु की रस्सियाँ ज़मीन को छूती रहती हैं। क्यों?(a) Sookhe baalon mein ghumaayi kanghi kaagaz ke tukde kheenchti hai. Kyun? Baal geele hon ya baarish ka din ho to kya hoga? (b) Normal rubber insulator hai, phir bhi aircraft ke tyres thode conducting banaaye jaate hain. Kyun? (c) Inflammable cheezein le jaane wali gaadiyon mein metal ki rassiyan zameen ko chhoti rehti hain. Kyun?(a) A comb passed through dry hair pulls small bits of paper. Why? What happens if the hair is wet, or if it is a rainy day? (b) Normal rubber is an insulator. But aircraft tyres are made slightly conducting. Why? (c) Vehicles that carry fuel or other things that catch fire easily have metal ropes touching the ground. Why?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
(a) Rubbing charges the comb; its field polarises the paper (induces dipoles) and the non-uniform field pulls the paper in. Wet hair or humid air conducts slightly, so the comb’s charge leaks away and it does not attract. (b) So that charge built up by friction with the runway can flow to the ground instead of producing sparks. (c) Same reason: charge produced by motion and friction is conducted to the earth, avoiding sparks near fuel.(a) रगड़ने से कंघी आवेशित होती है; उसका क्षेत्र काग़ज़ को ध्रुवित करता है (द्विध्रुव प्रेरित करता है) और असमान क्षेत्र काग़ज़ को खींच लेता है। गीले बाल या नम हवा थोड़ी चालक होती है, इसलिए कंघी का आवेश निकल जाता है और वह आकर्षित नहीं करती। (b) ताकि रनवे से घर्षण द्वारा जमा आवेश चिंगारी बनाने के बजाय ज़मीन में चला जाए। (c) यही कारण: गति और घर्षण से बना आवेश पृथ्वी में चला जाता है, ईंधन के पास चिंगारी नहीं बनती।(a) Ragadne se kanghi charge hoti hai; uska field kaagaz ko polarise karta hai (dipoles induce karta hai) aur non-uniform field kaagaz ko kheench leta hai. Geele baal ya humid hawa thodi conducting hoti hai, isliye kanghi ka charge nikal jaata hai aur wo attract nahi karti. (b) Taaki runway se friction se jama charge spark banaane ke bajaay zameen mein chala jaaye. (c) Yahi reason: motion aur friction se bana charge earth mein chala jaata hai, fuel ke paas spark nahi banta.(a) Rubbing gives the comb a charge. Its field polarises the paper (makes small dipoles in it). The comb’s field is non-uniform, so it pulls the paper towards it. Wet hair or damp air conducts a little. So the comb’s charge leaks away, and it does not pull the paper. (b) When the plane runs on the runway, rubbing (friction) builds up charge on the tyres. A slightly conducting tyre lets this charge flow to the ground, so no sparks are made. (c) For the same reason: charge made by movement and rubbing flows to the earth through the rope. This stops sparks near the fuel.
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2.10Dielectrics and Polarisationपरावैद्युत तथा ध्रुवणDielectrics aur Polarisation
Dielectrics are insulators: they have (almost) no free charges. In a field, a conductor’s free charges move until the field inside is cancelled. A dielectric cannot do that — instead the field stretches or turns its molecules, and the field inside is only reduced, not cancelled.परावैद्युत विद्युतरोधी हैं: इनमें (लगभग) कोई मुक्त आवेश नहीं। क्षेत्र में चालक के मुक्त आवेश तब तक चलते हैं जब तक अंदर क्षेत्र निरस्त न हो जाए। परावैद्युत ऐसा नहीं कर सकता — इसके बजाय क्षेत्र इसके अणुओं को खींचता या घुमाता है, और अंदर क्षेत्र केवल कम होता है, निरस्त नहीं।Dielectrics insulators hain: inmein (lagbhag) koi free charges nahi. Field mein conductor ke free charges tab tak chalte hain jab tak andar field cancel na ho jaaye. Dielectric aisa nahi kar sakta — iske bajaay field iske molecules ko kheenchta ya ghumaata hai, aur andar field sirf kam hota hai, cancel nahi.Dielectrics are insulators. They have almost no free charges. In a field, the free charges of a conductor move until the field inside becomes zero. A dielectric cannot do this. Instead, the field stretches or turns its molecules. So the field inside a dielectric only becomes smaller; it does not become zero.
- Non-polar molecules (e.g. O₂, H₂): centres of + and − charge coincide, so no permanent dipole. A field pulls the centres apart and induces a dipole.अध्रुवीय अणु (जैसे O₂, H₂): + और − आवेश के केंद्र एक ही स्थान पर, इसलिए स्थायी द्विध्रुव नहीं। क्षेत्र केंद्रों को अलग करके द्विध्रुव प्रेरित करता है।Non-polar molecules (jaise O₂, H₂): + aur − charge ke centres ek hi jagah, isliye permanent dipole nahi. Field centres ko alag karke dipole induce karta hai.Non-polar molecules (for example O₂, H₂): the centre of + charge and the centre of − charge are at the same place. So they have no permanent dipole. A field pulls these two centres apart, and so it induces (creates) a dipole.
- Polar molecules (e.g. H₂O, HCl): a permanent dipole moment, pointing randomly because of thermal motion. A field tends to line them up; thermal agitation fights against it.ध्रुवीय अणु (जैसे H₂O, HCl): स्थायी द्विध्रुव आघूर्ण, ऊष्मीय गति के कारण यादृच्छिक दिशाओं में। क्षेत्र इन्हें सीध में लाने का प्रयास करता है; ऊष्मीय विक्षोभ इसका विरोध करता है।Polar molecules (jaise H₂O, HCl): permanent dipole moment, thermal motion ki wajah se random directions mein. Field inhe line up karne ki koshish karta hai; thermal agitation iska virodh karta hai.Polar molecules (for example H₂O, HCl): they have a permanent dipole moment. But because of heat (thermal motion), these dipoles point in random directions. A field tries to line them up in its direction. The random heat motion works against this lining up.
Either way the dielectric gets a net dipole moment: it is polarised. The dipole moment per unit volume is the polarisation P; for linear isotropic dielectrics P = ε₀χₑE, where χₑ is the electric susceptibility. Inside the slab neighbouring + and − ends cancel, but at the two faces they do not: a surface charge density +σp and −σp appears (see the faces), whose field opposes the applied field.दोनों ही स्थितियों में परावैद्युत में नेट द्विध्रुव आघूर्ण आ जाता है: यह ध्रुवित हो जाता है। प्रति एकांक आयतन द्विध्रुव आघूर्ण ध्रुवण P है; रैखिक समदैशिक परावैद्युतों के लिए P = ε₀χₑE, जहाँ χₑ विद्युत प्रवृत्ति है। पट्टिका के अंदर पड़ोसी + और − सिरे निरस्त होते हैं, पर दोनों फलकों पर नहीं: पृष्ठ आवेश घनत्व +σp और −σp दिखते हैं (फलक देखें), जिनका क्षेत्र लगाए गए क्षेत्र का विरोध करता है।Dono hi cases mein dielectric mein net dipole moment aa jaata hai: ye polarised ho jaata hai. Per unit volume dipole moment polarisation P hai; linear isotropic dielectrics ke liye P = ε₀χₑE, jahan χₑ electric susceptibility hai. Slab ke andar padosi + aur − ends cancel hote hain, par dono faces par nahi: surface charge density +σp aur −σp dikhti hai (faces dekhiye), jiska field lagaaye gaye field ka virodh karta hai.In both cases, the dielectric gets a net dipole moment. We say it is polarised. The dipole moment in each unit of volume is called the polarisation P. For linear isotropic dielectrics (simple materials that behave the same in all directions), P = ε₀χₑE. Here χₑ is called the electric susceptibility. Inside the slab, the + and − ends of nearby dipoles cancel each other. But at the two faces, they do not cancel. So a surface charge density +σp and −σp appears on the faces. The field of these surface charges is opposite to the applied field. 👉 (see the faces)
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2.11Capacitors and Capacitanceसंधारित्र तथा धारिताCapacitors aur Capacitance
A capacitor is two conductors, insulated from each other, carrying charges +Q and −Q, with a potential difference V between them. Q is proportional to V; the constant ratio is the capacitance C, which depends only on the shapes, sizes and separation of the conductors and the medium between them.संधारित्र दो चालक हैं, एक-दूसरे से विद्युतरोधी, जिन पर +Q और −Q आवेश हैं और जिनके बीच विभवांतर V है। Q, V के अनुक्रमानुपाती है; यह स्थिर अनुपात धारिता C है, जो केवल चालकों के आकार, माप, उनकी दूरी और बीच के माध्यम पर निर्भर है।Capacitor do conductors hain, ek-doosre se insulated, jin par +Q aur −Q charges hain aur jinke beech potential difference V hai. Q, V ke proportional hai; ye constant ratio capacitance C hai, jo sirf conductors ki shape, size, unki doori aur beech ke medium par depend karta hai.A capacitor is a store for charge (and energy). Capacitance tells how much charge it holds per volt.
A large C means a lot of charge can be stored at a small V. That matters, because a large V means a strong field, and every insulator breaks down above a certain field. The maximum field a medium can withstand is its dielectric strength — for air about 3 × 10⁶ V m⁻¹. Above it, the air ionises and the charge leaks away (a spark).अधिक C का अर्थ है कम V पर अधिक आवेश संचित। यह इसलिए ज़रूरी है कि अधिक V यानी प्रबल क्षेत्र, और हर विद्युतरोधी एक निश्चित क्षेत्र के ऊपर भंग हो जाता है। कोई माध्यम जितना अधिकतम क्षेत्र सह सके वह उसकी परावैद्युत सामर्थ्य है — वायु के लिए लगभग 3 × 10⁶ V m⁻¹। इससे ऊपर वायु आयनित होकर आवेश निकाल देती है (चिंगारी)।Zyada C matlab kam V par zyada charge store. Ye isliye zaroori hai ki zyada V matlab strong field, aur har insulator ek certain field ke upar break down ho jaata hai. Koi medium jitna maximum field seh sake wo uski dielectric strength hai — hawa ke liye lagbhag 3 × 10⁶ V m⁻¹. Isse upar hawa ionise hokar charge nikaal deti hai (spark).A large C means we can store a lot of charge at a small V. This matters, because a large V means a strong field. Every insulator breaks down (starts to conduct) above a certain field. The largest field a material can bear without breaking down is called its dielectric strength. For air, it is about 3 × 10⁶ V m⁻¹. Above this, the air ionises (its molecules break into charged pieces), and the charge leaks away as a spark.
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2.12The Parallel Plate Capacitorसमांतर पट्टिका संधारित्रParallel Plate Capacitor
Two large plates of area A, separation d, carrying +Q and −Q (σ = Q/A) (see the plates). Using the field of a charged sheet (σ/2ε₀ each): between the plates the fields add, E = σ/ε₀; outside they cancel, E = 0. Near the edges the lines bend outward (fringing), which we ignore when d² ≪ A. Then V = Ed = Qd/(ε₀A), and:A क्षेत्रफल की दो बड़ी पट्टिकाएँ, दूरी d, आवेश +Q और −Q (σ = Q/A) (पट्टिकाएँ देखें)। आवेशित चादर का क्षेत्र (हर एक σ/2ε₀) लेने पर: पट्टिकाओं के बीच क्षेत्र जुड़ते हैं, E = σ/ε₀; बाहर निरस्त होते हैं, E = 0। किनारों के पास रेखाएँ बाहर मुड़ती हैं (फ्रिंजिंग), जिसे d² ≪ A होने पर छोड़ देते हैं। तब V = Ed = Qd/(ε₀A), और:A area ki do badi plates, doori d, charges +Q aur −Q (σ = Q/A) (plates dekhiye). Charged sheet ka field (har ek σ/2ε₀) lene par: plates ke beech fields jud jaate hain, E = σ/ε₀; bahar cancel hote hain, E = 0. Edges ke paas lines bahar mudti hain (fringing), jise d² ≪ A hone par ignore karte hain. Tab V = Ed = Qd/(ε₀A), aur:Take two large plates, each of area A, kept a distance d apart. One has charge +Q and the other −Q, so σ = Q/A. Each plate acts like a charged sheet with field σ/2ε₀. Between the plates, the two fields add up: E = σ/ε₀. Outside the plates, they cancel: E = 0. Near the edges, the field lines bend outward. This is called fringing, and we ignore it when d² ≪ A (when the gap is very small compared with the plate size). Then V = Ed = Qd/(ε₀A), and: 👉 (see the plates)
Change A, d and the dielectric constant K and watch C, Q, V, E and the stored energy. Then slide a dielectric in with the battery connected, and again with it disconnected — the two cases behave differently.A, d और परावैद्युतांक K बदलें और C, Q, V, E व संचित ऊर्जा देखें। फिर बैटरी जुड़ी रहते हुए, और फिर हटाकर, परावैद्युत अंदर डालें — दोनों स्थितियों में व्यवहार अलग है।A, d aur dielectric constant K badliye aur C, Q, V, E aur stored energy dekhiye. Phir battery jude rehte hue, aur phir hata kar, dielectric andar daaliye — dono cases mein behaviour alag hai.
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2.13Effect of Dielectric on Capacitanceधारिता पर परावैद्युत का प्रभावCapacitance par Dielectric ka Effect
Fill the gap completely with a dielectric. Its surface charges ±σp partly cancel the plates’ charge, so the field becomes E = (σ − σp)/ε₀ = σ/(Kε₀), where the constant K > 1 is the dielectric constant. V drops by the factor K for the same Q, so the capacitance increases K times:दूरी को पूरी तरह परावैद्युत से भर दें। इसके पृष्ठ आवेश ±σp पट्टिकाओं के आवेश को आंशिक रूप से निरस्त करते हैं, इसलिए क्षेत्र E = (σ − σp)/ε₀ = σ/(Kε₀) हो जाता है, जहाँ स्थिरांक K > 1 परावैद्युतांक है। उसी Q के लिए V, K गुना घटता है, इसलिए धारिता K गुना बढ़ती है:Gap ko poori tarah dielectric se bhar do. Iske surface charges ±σp plates ke charge ko partly cancel karte hain, isliye field E = (σ − σp)/ε₀ = σ/(Kε₀) ho jaata hai, jahan constant K > 1 dielectric constant hai. Usi Q ke liye V, K guna ghatata hai, isliye capacitance K guna badhti hai:Now fill the gap fully with a dielectric. Its surface charges ±σp cancel part of the plates’ charge. So the field becomes E = (σ − σp)/ε₀ = σ/(Kε₀). The constant K > 1 is called the dielectric constant. For the same charge Q, V becomes K times smaller. So the capacitance becomes K times bigger:
A slab of dielectric constant K, with the same area as the plates but thickness (3/4)d, is inserted into a parallel plate capacitor of separation d. How does the capacitance change?परावैद्युतांक K की पट्टिका, जिसका क्षेत्रफल पट्टिकाओं जितना पर मोटाई (3/4)d है, d दूरी वाले समांतर पट्टिका संधारित्र में डाली जाती है। धारिता कैसे बदलती है?Dielectric constant K ki slab, jiska area plates jitna par thickness (3/4)d hai, d doori wale parallel plate capacitor mein daali jaati hai. Capacitance kaise badalti hai?A parallel plate capacitor has plates a distance d apart. A slab with dielectric constant K is put in. The slab has the same area as the plates, but its thickness is (3/4)d. How does the capacitance change?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
With the same charge, the field is E₀ in the air gap (d/4) and E₀/K in the slab (3d/4). V = E₀(d/4) + (E₀/K)(3d/4) = V₀ (K + 3)/(4K). So C = Q/V = [4K/(K + 3)] C₀ — larger than C₀, but less than KC₀.उसी आवेश पर वायु भाग (d/4) में क्षेत्र E₀ और पट्टिका (3d/4) में E₀/K है। V = E₀(d/4) + (E₀/K)(3d/4) = V₀ (K + 3)/(4K)। अतः C = Q/V = [4K/(K + 3)] C₀ — C₀ से अधिक, पर KC₀ से कम।Usi charge par air gap (d/4) mein field E₀ aur slab (3d/4) mein E₀/K hai. V = E₀(d/4) + (E₀/K)(3d/4) = V₀ (K + 3)/(4K). Isliye C = Q/V = [4K/(K + 3)] C₀ — C₀ se zyada, par KC₀ se kam.Keep the charge the same. The field is E₀ in the air gap (thickness d/4), and E₀/K inside the slab (thickness 3d/4). Add the voltage across each part: V = E₀(d/4) + (E₀/K)(3d/4) = V₀ (K + 3)/(4K). So C = Q/V = [4K/(K + 3)] C₀. This is bigger than C₀, but smaller than KC₀ (the value if the whole gap were filled).
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2.14Combination of Capacitorsसंधारित्रों का संयोजनCapacitors ka Combination
2.14.1Capacitors in seriesश्रेणी क्रम में संधारित्रSeries mein Capacitors
In series, the capacitors are joined end to end. Every capacitor carries the same charge Q (the connecting wire between two capacitors starts neutral, so the charges on its two ends must be equal and opposite). The voltages add: V = V₁ + V₂ + … = Q/C₁ + Q/C₂ + … (series circuit). So:श्रेणी में संधारित्र सिरे-से-सिरा जुड़े होते हैं। हर संधारित्र पर समान आवेश Q होता है (दो संधारित्रों के बीच का तार शुरू में उदासीन है, इसलिए उसके दोनों सिरों के आवेश बराबर और विपरीत होने चाहिए)। वोल्टताएँ जुड़ती हैं: V = V₁ + V₂ + … = Q/C₁ + Q/C₂ + … (श्रेणी परिपथ)। अतः:Series mein capacitors end-to-end jude hote hain. Har capacitor par same charge Q hota hai (do capacitors ke beech ka wire shuru mein neutral hai, isliye uske dono ends ke charges barabar aur opposite hone chahiye). Voltages judte hain: V = V₁ + V₂ + … = Q/C₁ + Q/C₂ + … (series circuit). Isliye:In series, the capacitors are joined one after another, end to end. Each capacitor holds the same charge Q. (The wire joining two capacitors starts with no charge, so the charges on its two ends must be equal and opposite.) The voltages add up: V = V₁ + V₂ + … = Q/C₁ + Q/C₂ + … So: 👉 (series circuit)
2.14.2Capacitors in parallelपार्श्व क्रम में संधारित्रParallel mein Capacitors
In parallel, all capacitors are connected across the same two points, so each has the same voltage V. The charges add: Q = Q₁ + Q₂ + … = (C₁ + C₂ + …)V (parallel circuit). So:पार्श्व में सभी संधारित्र उन्हीं दो बिंदुओं के बीच जुड़े होते हैं, इसलिए हर एक पर समान वोल्टता V होती है। आवेश जुड़ते हैं: Q = Q₁ + Q₂ + … = (C₁ + C₂ + …)V (पार्श्व परिपथ)। अतः:Parallel mein saare capacitors unhi do points ke beech jude hote hain, isliye har ek par same voltage V hoti hai. Charges judte hain: Q = Q₁ + Q₂ + … = (C₁ + C₂ + …)V (parallel circuit). Isliye:In parallel, all the capacitors are joined across the same two points. So each one has the same voltage V. The charges add up: Q = Q₁ + Q₂ + … = (C₁ + C₂ + …)V. So: 👉 (parallel circuit)
Careful: capacitors combine the opposite way to resistors. Series capacitors add like parallel resistors (1/C adds), and parallel capacitors add like series resistors (C adds).सावधान: संधारित्र प्रतिरोधों के उलटे ढंग से जुड़ते हैं। श्रेणी के संधारित्र पार्श्व प्रतिरोधों की तरह जुड़ते हैं (1/C जुड़ता है), और पार्श्व के संधारित्र श्रेणी प्रतिरोधों की तरह (C जुड़ता है)।Dhyaan do: capacitors resistors ke ulte tareeke se judte hain. Series capacitors parallel resistors ki tarah judte hain (1/C judta hai), aur parallel capacitors series resistors ki tarah (C judta hai).Be careful: capacitors combine in the opposite way to resistors. Capacitors in series add like resistors in parallel (we add 1/C). Capacitors in parallel add like resistors in series (we add C).
Set two or three capacitors and the battery voltage. Switch between series and parallel and compare the equivalent capacitance, each capacitor’s charge and its voltage.दो या तीन संधारित्र और बैटरी वोल्टता चुनें। श्रेणी और पार्श्व के बीच बदलें और तुल्य धारिता, हर संधारित्र का आवेश व वोल्टता तुलना करें।Do ya teen capacitors aur battery voltage set kijiye. Series aur parallel ke beech switch kijiye aur equivalent capacitance, har capacitor ka charge aur voltage compare kijiye.
Four 10 μF capacitors are connected to a 500 V supply: C₁, C₂ and C₃ in series, and this chain in parallel with C₄. Find (a) the equivalent capacitance and (b) the charge on each capacitor.चार 10 μF संधारित्र 500 V स्रोत से जुड़े हैं: C₁, C₂ और C₃ श्रेणी में, और यह शृंखला C₄ के पार्श्व में। ज्ञात करें (a) तुल्य धारिता और (b) हर संधारित्र पर आवेश।Chaar 10 μF capacitors 500 V supply se jude hain: C₁, C₂ aur C₃ series mein, aur ye chain C₄ ke parallel mein. Nikaalo (a) equivalent capacitance aur (b) har capacitor par charge.Four capacitors of 10 μF each are joined to a 500 V supply. C₁, C₂ and C₃ are in series, and this chain is in parallel with C₄. Find (a) the equivalent (total) capacitance, and (b) the charge on each capacitor.
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
(a) Series chain: 1/C′ = 3/10 → C′ = 10/3 μF. In parallel with C₄: C = 10/3 + 10 = 13.3 μF. (b) The chain has 500 V across it, so each of C₁, C₂, C₃ carries Q = (10/3 μF)(500 V) ≈ 1.7 × 10⁻³ C. C₄ has the full 500 V: Q′ = 10 μF × 500 V = 5.0 × 10⁻³ C.(a) श्रेणी शृंखला: 1/C′ = 3/10 → C′ = 10/3 μF। C₄ के पार्श्व में: C = 10/3 + 10 = 13.3 μF। (b) शृंखला पर 500 V है, इसलिए C₁, C₂, C₃ हर एक पर Q = (10/3 μF)(500 V) ≈ 1.7 × 10⁻³ C। C₄ पर पूरा 500 V: Q′ = 10 μF × 500 V = 5.0 × 10⁻³ C।(a) Series chain: 1/C′ = 3/10 → C′ = 10/3 μF. C₄ ke parallel mein: C = 10/3 + 10 = 13.3 μF. (b) Chain par 500 V hai, isliye C₁, C₂, C₃ har ek par Q = (10/3 μF)(500 V) ≈ 1.7 × 10⁻³ C. C₄ par poora 500 V: Q′ = 10 μF × 500 V = 5.0 × 10⁻³ C.(a) For the series chain: 1/C′ = 3/10, so C′ = 10/3 μF. This is in parallel with C₄, so we add: C = 10/3 + 10 = 13.3 μF. (b) The chain has 500 V across it. So each of C₁, C₂ and C₃ holds the same charge Q = (10/3 μF)(500 V) ≈ 1.7 × 10⁻³ C. C₄ has the full 500 V across it, so Q′ = 10 μF × 500 V = 5.0 × 10⁻³ C.
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2.15Energy Stored in a Capacitorसंधारित्र में संचित ऊर्जाCapacitor mein Stored Energy
Charging a capacitor means moving charge, bit by bit, from one plate to the other against the growing voltage. When the charge is Q′, the voltage is Q′/C, so moving a small δQ costs (Q′/C)δQ. Adding this from 0 to Q gives the stored energy:संधारित्र को आवेशित करने का अर्थ है आवेश को थोड़ा-थोड़ा करके एक पट्टिका से दूसरी पर, बढ़ती वोल्टता के विरुद्ध, ले जाना। जब आवेश Q′ है, वोल्टता Q′/C है, इसलिए छोटा δQ ले जाने में (Q′/C)δQ कार्य लगता है। इसे 0 से Q तक जोड़ने पर संचित ऊर्जा:Capacitor ko charge karne ka matlab hai charge ko thoda-thoda karke ek plate se doosri par, badhti voltage ke against, le jaana. Jab charge Q′ hai, voltage Q′/C hai, isliye chhota δQ le jaane mein (Q′/C)δQ work lagta hai. Ise 0 se Q tak jodne par stored energy:The energy is ½QV, not QV, because the voltage rose from 0 to V while you were charging — on average it was V/2.
(a) A 900 pF capacitor is charged by a 100 V battery. How much energy is stored? (b) It is disconnected and connected across another uncharged 900 pF capacitor. What is the energy stored now?(a) 900 pF संधारित्र को 100 V बैटरी से आवेशित किया जाता है। कितनी ऊर्जा संचित है? (b) इसे हटाकर दूसरे अनावेशित 900 pF संधारित्र से जोड़ा जाता है। अब संचित ऊर्जा कितनी है?(a) 900 pF capacitor ko 100 V battery se charge kiya jaata hai. Kitni energy store hai? (b) Ise hata kar doosre uncharged 900 pF capacitor se joda jaata hai. Ab stored energy kitni hai?(a) A 900 pF capacitor is charged by a 100 V battery. How much energy does it store? (b) Then it is removed from the battery and joined to another 900 pF capacitor that has no charge. How much energy is stored now?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
(a) Q = CV = 9 × 10⁻⁸ C; U = ½QV = 4.5 × 10⁻⁶ J. (b) The charge is shared equally (identical capacitors): Q/2 on each, common voltage V/2 = 50 V. Total U = 2 × ½(Q/2)(V/2) = ¼QV = 2.25 × 10⁻⁶ J — half of it is lost! It goes as heat (and electromagnetic radiation) while the transient current flows between them.(a) Q = CV = 9 × 10⁻⁸ C; U = ½QV = 4.5 × 10⁻⁶ J। (b) आवेश बराबर बँटता है (समान संधारित्र): हर एक पर Q/2, उभयनिष्ठ वोल्टता V/2 = 50 V। कुल U = 2 × ½(Q/2)(V/2) = ¼QV = 2.25 × 10⁻⁶ J — आधी ऊर्जा चली गई! यह उनके बीच क्षणिक धारा बहते समय ऊष्मा (और वैद्युतचुंबकीय विकिरण) के रूप में जाती है।(a) Q = CV = 9 × 10⁻⁸ C; U = ½QV = 4.5 × 10⁻⁶ J. (b) Charge barabar bant-ta hai (same capacitors): har ek par Q/2, common voltage V/2 = 50 V. Total U = 2 × ½(Q/2)(V/2) = ¼QV = 2.25 × 10⁻⁶ J — aadhi energy chali gayi! Ye unke beech transient current behte waqt heat (aur EM radiation) ban kar jaati hai.(a) Q = CV = 9 × 10⁻⁸ C. The energy U = ½QV = 4.5 × 10⁻⁶ J. (b) The two capacitors are the same, so the charge is shared equally: Q/2 on each. The common voltage becomes V/2 = 50 V. Total U = 2 × ½(Q/2)(V/2) = ¼QV = 2.25 × 10⁻⁶ J. So half of the energy is lost! It is lost as heat (and electromagnetic radiation) while a short-lived current flows between the two capacitors.
Battery connected vs disconnected (a favourite concept): inserting a dielectric (K) with the battery connected keeps V fixed, so C, Q, and U all become K times. With the battery disconnected, Q stays fixed, so C becomes K times while V, E and U all become 1/K times.बैटरी जुड़ी बनाम हटाई (प्रिय अवधारणा): बैटरी जुड़ी रहते परावैद्युत (K) डालने पर V स्थिर रहता है, इसलिए C, Q और U सब K गुना हो जाते हैं। बैटरी हटाने पर Q स्थिर रहता है, इसलिए C, K गुना हो जाती है जबकि V, E और U सब 1/K गुना।Battery connected vs disconnected (favourite concept): battery jude rehte dielectric (K) daalne par V fixed rehta hai, isliye C, Q aur U sab K guna ho jaate hain. Battery hataane par Q fixed rehta hai, isliye C, K guna ho jaati hai jabki V, E aur U sab 1/K guna.Battery joined vs battery removed (a very common exam idea): Put in a dielectric (K) while the battery stays joined. Then V stays fixed, so C, Q and U all become K times. Now suppose the battery is removed first. Then Q stays fixed. So C becomes K times, but V, E and U all become 1/K times.
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★Formula sheetसूत्र सूचीFormula sheet
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★Quick revisionझटपट दोहरावQuick revision
- Electrostatic force is conservative: work from R to P is q[V(P) − V(R)], independent of the path. V(∞) = 0 by choice.स्थिरवैद्युत बल संरक्षी है: R से P तक कार्य q[V(P) − V(R)], पथ से स्वतंत्र। V(∞) = 0 चुना जाता है।Electrostatic force conservative hai: R se P tak work q[V(P) − V(R)], path se independent. V(∞) = 0 choose karte hain.The electrostatic force is conservative. The work done in moving charge q from R to P is q[V(P) − V(R)], and it does not depend on the path. We choose V(∞) = 0.
- Point charge: V = kq/r (scalar, ∝ 1/r). Dipole: V = p cos θ/(4πε₀r²) (∝ 1/r², zero on the equatorial plane).बिंदु आवेश: V = kq/r (अदिश, ∝ 1/r)। द्विध्रुव: V = p cos θ/(4πε₀r²) (∝ 1/r², विषुवतीय तल पर शून्य)।Point charge: V = kq/r (scalar, ∝ 1/r). Dipole: V = p cos θ/(4πε₀r²) (∝ 1/r², equatorial plane par zero).Point charge: V = kq/r (a scalar, ∝ 1/r). Dipole: V = p cos θ/(4πε₀r²) (∝ 1/r², and zero on the equatorial plane).
- Superposition: V = Σ kqᵢ/rᵢ. Shell: V = kq/R everywhere inside.अध्यारोपण: V = Σ kqᵢ/rᵢ। कोश: अंदर हर जगह V = kq/R।Superposition: V = Σ kqᵢ/rᵢ. Shell: andar har jagah V = kq/R.Superposition: V = Σ kqᵢ/rᵢ (just add the potentials of all charges). Charged shell: V = kq/R everywhere inside it.
- Equipotentials: no work along them; E is normal to them and points towards lower V; E = −δV/δl.समविभव पृष्ठ: उन पर चलने में कार्य नहीं; E उनके अभिलंब और कम V की ओर; E = −δV/δl।Equipotentials: unpar chalne mein work nahi; E unke normal aur kam V ki taraf; E = −δV/δl.Equipotential surfaces: no work is done in moving along them. E is normal (at right angles) to them, and points towards lower V. E = −δV/δl.
- PE of a system = one term kqᵢqⱼ/rᵢⱼ per pair. In an external field add qV(r) for each charge; dipole U = −pE cos θ.निकाय की PE = हर युग्म का एक पद kqᵢqⱼ/rᵢⱼ। बाह्य क्षेत्र में हर आवेश का qV(r) जोड़ें; द्विध्रुव U = −pE cos θ।System ki PE = har pair ka ek term kqᵢqⱼ/rᵢⱼ. External field mein har charge ka qV(r) jodiye; dipole U = −pE cos θ.Potential energy of a system = one term kqᵢqⱼ/rᵢⱼ for each pair. In an external field, add qV(r) for each charge. For a dipole: U = −pE cos θ.
- Conductors: E = 0 inside, no charge inside, V constant, E normal at surface (σ/ε₀), cavity shielded.चालक: अंदर E = 0, अंदर आवेश नहीं, V स्थिर, पृष्ठ पर E अभिलंब (σ/ε₀), कोटर परिरक्षित।Conductors: andar E = 0, andar charge nahi, V constant, surface par E normal (σ/ε₀), cavity shielded.Conductors: E = 0 inside, no charge inside, V is the same everywhere, E is normal at the surface (σ/ε₀), and a cavity inside is shielded.
- Dielectrics get polarised (induced or aligned dipoles); surface charges ±σp reduce the field by K.परावैद्युत ध्रुवित होते हैं (प्रेरित या संरेखित द्विध्रुव); पृष्ठ आवेश ±σp क्षेत्र को K गुना घटाते हैं।Dielectrics polarise hote hain (induced ya aligned dipoles); surface charges ±σp field ko K guna ghataate hain.Dielectrics get polarised (dipoles are induced or lined up). Their surface charges ±σp make the field K times smaller.
- C = Q/V; parallel plate C = Kε₀A/d. Series: same Q, 1/C adds. Parallel: same V, C adds.C = Q/V; समांतर पट्टिका C = Kε₀A/d। श्रेणी: समान Q, 1/C जुड़ता है। पार्श्व: समान V, C जुड़ता है।C = Q/V; parallel plate C = Kε₀A/d. Series: same Q, 1/C judta hai. Parallel: same V, C judta hai.C = Q/V. Parallel plate capacitor: C = Kε₀A/d. Series: same Q on each, add 1/C. Parallel: same V on each, add C.
- Energy U = ½CV² = Q²/2C = ½QV, stored in the field with density ½ε₀E². Sharing charge between capacitors loses energy as heat.ऊर्जा U = ½CV² = Q²/2C = ½QV, क्षेत्र में ½ε₀E² घनत्व से संचित। संधारित्रों में आवेश बँटने पर ऊर्जा ऊष्मा बनकर जाती है।Energy U = ½CV² = Q²/2C = ½QV, field mein ½ε₀E² density se store. Capacitors mein charge bantne par energy heat ban kar jaati hai.Energy stored U = ½CV² = Q²/2C = ½QV. This energy is stored in the field, with energy density ½ε₀E². When charge is shared between capacitors, some energy is lost as heat.
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