CLASS 12 PHYSICS · CHAPTER 9 · READ
Ray Optics and Optical Instrumentsकिरण प्रकाशिकी एवं प्रकाशिक यंत्रRay Optics and Optical Instruments
Light as rays → mirrors and the sign convention → mirror equation → refraction and Snell’s law → total internal reflection and optical fibres → refraction at curved surfaces → lenses, lens maker’s formula, power → prism and minimum deviation → microscope and telescope.प्रकाश किरणों के रूप में → दर्पण और चिह्न परिपाटी → दर्पण समीकरण → अपवर्तन और स्नेल का नियम → पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन और प्रकाशिक तंतु → वक्र पृष्ठों पर अपवर्तन → लेंस, लेंस मेकर सूत्र, क्षमता → प्रिज़्म और अल्पतम विचलन → सूक्ष्मदर्शी और दूरदर्शक।Light rays ke roop mein → mirrors aur sign convention → mirror equation → refraction aur Snell’s law → total internal reflection aur optical fibres → curved surfaces par refraction → lenses, lens maker’s formula, power → prism aur minimum deviation → microscope aur telescope.
Board Notes: Pass to Topperबोर्ड नोट्स: पास से टॉपर तकBoard Notes: Pass se Topper tak🔥 Top topic came in 7 of 7 years · see what to learn first🔥 सबसे ऊपर वाला टॉपिक 7 में से 7 वर्ष आया · देखें पहले क्या पढ़ें🔥 Top topic 7 mein se 7 saal aaya · dekhiye pehle kya padhna haiDidn’t understand a paragraph? Tap it (or its Explain button) → Hindi / Hinglish / Simple English.कोई पैराग्राफ़ समझ नहीं आया? उस पर (या समझें बटन पर) टैप करें → अंग्रेज़ी / हिंग्लिश / सरल अंग्रेज़ी।Koi paragraph samajh nahi aaya? Us par (ya Samjho button par) tap kijiye → Hindi / English / Simple English.
Try it yourself — live simulationsख़ुद करके देखें — लाइव सिमुलेशनKhud karke dekhiye — live simulations
Diagrams in this chapterइस अध्याय के चित्रIs chapter ke diagrams
▶ Animate: deviation and minimum deviation in a prism▶ एनिमेट: प्रिज़्म में विचलन और न्यूनतम विचलन▶ Animate: prism mein deviation aur minimum deviationAnimated
▶ Animate: total internal reflection step by step▶ एनिमेट: पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन चरण-दर-चरण▶ Animate: total internal reflection step by stepAnimatedIn this chapter (NCERT sections)इस अध्याय में (NCERT खंड)Is chapter mein (NCERT sections)
- 9.1IntroductionभूमिकाIntroduction
- 9.2Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrorsगोलीय दर्पणों द्वारा प्रकाश का परावर्तनSpherical Mirrors se Light ka Reflection
- 9.2.1Sign conventionचिह्न परिपाटीSign convention
- 9.2.2Focal length of spherical mirrorsगोलीय दर्पणों की फोकस दूरीSpherical mirrors ki focal length
- 9.2.3The mirror equationदर्पण समीकरणMirror equation
- 9.3Refractionअपवर्तनRefraction
- 9.4Total Internal Reflectionपूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तनTotal Internal Reflection
- 9.4.1Total internal reflection in nature and its technological applicationsप्रकृति में पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन और इसके तकनीकी अनुप्रयोगNature mein TIR aur iske technological applications
- 9.5Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lensesगोलीय पृष्ठों पर तथा लेंसों द्वारा अपवर्तनSpherical Surfaces par aur Lenses dwara Refraction
- 9.5.1Refraction at a spherical surfaceगोलीय पृष्ठ पर अपवर्तनSpherical surface par refraction
- 9.5.2Refraction by a lensलेंस द्वारा अपवर्तनLens dwara refraction
- 9.5.3Power of a lensलेंस की क्षमताLens ki power
- 9.5.4Combination of thin lenses in contactसंपर्क में रखे पतले लेंसों का संयोजनContact mein rakhe thin lenses ka combination
- 9.6Refraction through a Prismप्रिज़्म से अपवर्तनPrism se Refraction
- 9.7Optical Instrumentsप्रकाशिक यंत्रOptical Instruments
- 9.7.1The microscopeसूक्ष्मदर्शीMicroscope
- 9.7.2Telescopeदूरदर्शकTelescope
9.1IntroductionभूमिकाIntroduction
Our eyes detect electromagnetic waves of wavelength about 400 nm to 750 nm — this is light. Light travels enormously fast: in vacuum c = 2.99792458 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹ (take 3 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹), the highest speed in nature.हमारी आँखें लगभग 400 nm से 750 nm तरंगदैर्घ्य की वैद्युत चुंबकीय तरंगों को पहचानती हैं — यही प्रकाश है। प्रकाश अत्यंत तीव्र चलता है: निर्वात में c = 2.99792458 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹ (3 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹ लें), जो प्रकृति की उच्चतम चाल है।Hamari aankhein lagbhag 400 nm se 750 nm wavelength ki electromagnetic waves detect karti hain — yahi light hai. Light bahut tez chalti hai: vacuum mein c = 2.99792458 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹ (3 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹ lijiye), jo nature ki sabse zyada speed hai.Light is the small part of electromagnetic waves our eyes can see. It is the fastest thing in nature.
Light is a wave, yet it seems to travel in straight lines. Why? Because its wavelength is tiny compared with everyday objects (a few cm or more). So we can treat it as travelling along straight lines called rays; a bundle of rays is a beam. This chapter uses the ray picture to study reflection, refraction and dispersion, image formation by mirrors, lenses and prisms, and then the microscope and telescope.प्रकाश एक तरंग है, फिर भी सीधी रेखा में चलता प्रतीत होता है। क्यों? क्योंकि इसकी तरंगदैर्घ्य रोज़मर्रा की वस्तुओं (कुछ cm या अधिक) की तुलना में बहुत छोटी है। इसलिए हम इसे सीधी रेखाओं, यानी किरणों, के अनुदिश चलता मान सकते हैं; किरणों का समूह किरण-पुंज है। यह अध्याय किरण चित्र से परावर्तन, अपवर्तन और वर्ण-विक्षेपण, दर्पणों, लेंसों और प्रिज़्म से प्रतिबिंब बनना, और फिर सूक्ष्मदर्शी और दूरदर्शक समझाता है।Light ek wave hai, phir bhi seedhi line mein chalti lagti hai. Kyun? Kyunki iski wavelength roz ki cheezon (kuch cm ya zyada) ke mukable bahut chhoti hai. Isliye hum ise seedhi lines, yaani rays, ke along chalta maan sakte hain; rays ka group beam hai. Ye chapter ray picture se reflection, refraction aur dispersion, mirrors, lenses aur prism se image banna, aur phir microscope aur telescope samjhata hai.Light is a wave, but it seems to travel in straight lines. Why? Because its wavelength is very tiny compared with the size of everyday objects (a few cm or more). So we can treat light as moving along straight lines called rays. A bundle of rays is called a beam. In this chapter we use this ray picture to study reflection, refraction and dispersion (splitting into colours), how mirrors, lenses and prisms make images, and then the microscope and the telescope.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
9.2Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrorsगोलीय दर्पणों द्वारा प्रकाश का परावर्तनSpherical Mirrors se Light ka Reflection
Laws of reflection: (1) the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence (both measured from the normal); (2) the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal lie in the same plane. These hold at every point of any surface, flat or curved. For a spherical mirror the normal at a point is along the radius — the line from the centre of curvature C to that point.परावर्तन के नियम: (1) परावर्तन कोण आपतन कोण के बराबर होता है (दोनों अभिलंब से मापे जाते हैं); (2) आपतित किरण, परावर्तित किरण और अभिलंब एक ही तल में होते हैं। ये किसी भी सतह — समतल या वक्र — के हर बिंदु पर लागू हैं। गोलीय दर्पण में किसी बिंदु पर अभिलंब त्रिज्या के अनुदिश होता है — वक्रता केंद्र C से उस बिंदु तक की रेखा।Reflection ke laws: (1) angle of reflection = angle of incidence (dono normal se naape jaate hain); (2) incident ray, reflected ray aur normal ek hi plane mein hote hain. Ye kisi bhi surface — flat ya curved — ke har point par lagte hain. Spherical mirror mein kisi point par normal radius ke along hota hai — centre of curvature C se us point tak ki line.Laws of reflection: (1) the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence (both are measured from the normal, the line at right angles to the surface); (2) the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane. These laws work at every point of any surface, flat or curved. For a spherical mirror, the normal at a point lies along the radius, the line from the centre of curvature C to that point.
Some names: the geometric centre of a spherical mirror is its pole P (for a lens, the optical centre). The line through P and the centre of curvature C is the principal axis.कुछ नाम: गोलीय दर्पण का ज्यामितीय केंद्र उसका ध्रुव P है (लेंस के लिए प्रकाशिक केंद्र)। P और वक्रता केंद्र C से होकर जाने वाली रेखा मुख्य अक्ष है।Kuch naam: spherical mirror ka geometric centre uska pole P hai (lens ke liye optical centre). P aur centre of curvature C se jaane wali line principal axis hai.Some names: the middle point of a spherical mirror is its pole P (for a lens it is called the optical centre). The line through P and the centre of curvature C is the principal axis.
9.2.1Sign conventionचिह्न परिपाटीSign convention
To use ONE formula for every mirror and ONE for every lens, we use the Cartesian sign convention: (i) all distances are measured from the pole (or optical centre); (ii) distances measured in the direction of the incident light are positive, opposite to it negative; (iii) heights measured upward from the principal axis are positive, downward negative.हर दर्पण के लिए एक ही सूत्र और हर लेंस के लिए एक ही सूत्र प्रयोग करने हेतु हम कार्तीय चिह्न परिपाटी अपनाते हैं: (i) सभी दूरियाँ ध्रुव (या प्रकाशिक केंद्र) से मापी जाती हैं; (ii) आपतित प्रकाश की दिशा में मापी दूरियाँ धनात्मक, उसके विपरीत ऋणात्मक; (iii) मुख्य अक्ष से ऊपर की ऊँचाई धनात्मक, नीचे की ऋणात्मक।Har mirror ke liye ek hi formula aur har lens ke liye ek hi formula use karne ke liye hum Cartesian sign convention apnaate hain: (i) saari distances pole (ya optical centre) se naapi jaati hain; (ii) incident light ki direction mein distances positive, ulti direction mein negative; (iii) principal axis se upar height positive, neeche negative.Measure from the mirror. Along the light = plus, against the light = minus. Up = plus, down = minus.
Always draw light coming from the left. Then a real object in front of a mirror or lens always has u negative. A concave mirror has f negative, a convex mirror f positive; a convex lens f positive, a concave lens f negative. Forgetting this is the No. 1 source of wrong answers.प्रकाश को हमेशा बाईं ओर से आता हुआ बनाइए। तब दर्पण या लेंस के सामने वास्तविक वस्तु के लिए u सदा ऋणात्मक होता है। अवतल दर्पण का f ऋणात्मक, उत्तल दर्पण का धनात्मक; उत्तल लेंस का f धनात्मक, अवतल लेंस का ऋणात्मक। इसे भूलना गलत उत्तरों का सबसे बड़ा कारण है।Light ko hamesha left se aata hua banaiye. Tab mirror ya lens ke saamne real object ke liye u hamesha negative hota hai. Concave mirror ka f negative, convex mirror ka positive; convex lens ka f positive, concave lens ka negative. Ise bhoolna galat answers ki sabse badi wajah hai.Always draw light coming from the left. Then a real object in front of a mirror or a lens always has u negative. A concave mirror has f negative; a convex mirror has f positive. A convex lens has f positive; a concave lens has f negative. Forgetting these signs is the No. 1 reason for wrong answers.
9.2.2Focal length of spherical mirrorsगोलीय दर्पणों की फोकस दूरीSpherical mirrors ki focal length
Send a beam parallel to the axis. We assume the rays are paraxial — they strike close to the pole and make small angles with the axis. After a concave mirror the rays converge at a point F on the axis; after a convex mirror they appear to diverge from a point F behind it. F is the principal focus, and PF is the focal length f. A parallel beam at a small angle to the axis focuses at a point in the focal plane (the plane through F perpendicular to the axis).अक्ष के समांतर एक किरण-पुंज भेजिए। हम मानते हैं कि किरणें उपाक्षीय हैं — ध्रुव के पास पड़ती हैं और अक्ष से छोटे कोण बनाती हैं। अवतल दर्पण से परावर्तन के बाद किरणें अक्ष पर एक बिंदु F पर मिलती हैं; उत्तल दर्पण के बाद वे उसके पीछे के बिंदु F से फैलती प्रतीत होती हैं। F मुख्य फोकस है और PF फोकस दूरी f। अक्ष से छोटा कोण बनाता समांतर पुंज फोकस तल (F से होकर अक्ष के लंबवत् तल) के किसी बिंदु पर फोकस होता है।Axis ke parallel ek beam bhejiye. Hum maante hain ki rays paraxial hain — pole ke paas padti hain aur axis se chhote angles banati hain. Concave mirror ke baad rays axis par ek point F par milti hain; convex mirror ke baad wo uske peeche ke point F se phailti hui lagti hain. F principal focus hai aur PF focal length f. Axis se chhota angle banata parallel beam focal plane (F se hokar axis ke perpendicular plane) ke kisi point par focus hota hai.Send a beam of light parallel to the axis. We assume the rays are paraxial: they hit close to the pole and make small angles with the axis. After a concave mirror, the rays meet (converge) at a point F on the axis. After a convex mirror, they seem to spread out (diverge) from a point F behind the mirror. F is the principal focus, and the distance PF is the focal length f. A parallel beam that makes a small angle with the axis meets at a point in the focal plane (the plane through F at right angles to the axis).
Why f = R/2: a ray parallel to the axis hits the mirror at M at angle of incidence θ. The normal is CM, so ∠MCP = θ, and the reflected ray crosses the axis at F with ∠MFP = 2θ. With MD perpendicular to the axis, tan θ = MD/CD and tan 2θ = MD/FD. For small θ, tan θ ≈ θ and tan 2θ ≈ 2θ, so MD/FD = 2 MD/CD, i.e. FD = CD/2. For paraxial rays D is practically at P, so FD = f and CD = R:f = R/2 क्यों: अक्ष के समांतर किरण दर्पण पर M पर आपतन कोण θ से पड़ती है। अभिलंब CM है, अतः ∠MCP = θ, और परावर्तित किरण अक्ष को F पर काटती है, ∠MFP = 2θ। अक्ष पर लंब MD लें तो tan θ = MD/CD और tan 2θ = MD/FD। छोटे θ के लिए tan θ ≈ θ, tan 2θ ≈ 2θ, अतः MD/FD = 2 MD/CD, यानी FD = CD/2। उपाक्षीय किरणों में D लगभग P पर है, अतः FD = f और CD = R:f = R/2 kyun: axis ke parallel ray mirror par M par angle of incidence θ se padti hai. Normal CM hai, isliye ∠MCP = θ, aur reflected ray axis ko F par kaatti hai, ∠MFP = 2θ. Axis par perpendicular MD lijiye to tan θ = MD/CD aur tan 2θ = MD/FD. Chhote θ ke liye tan θ ≈ θ, tan 2θ ≈ 2θ, isliye MD/FD = 2 MD/CD, yaani FD = CD/2. Paraxial rays mein D lagbhag P par hai, isliye FD = f aur CD = R:Why f = R/2: a ray parallel to the axis hits the mirror at M, with angle of incidence θ. The normal there is CM, so ∠MCP = θ. The reflected ray crosses the axis at F, making ∠MFP = 2θ. Draw MD at right angles to the axis. Then tan θ = MD/CD and tan 2θ = MD/FD. For small angles, tan θ ≈ θ and tan 2θ ≈ 2θ. So MD/FD = 2 MD/CD, which means FD = CD/2. For paraxial rays, D is almost at P, so FD = f and CD = R:
9.2.3The mirror equationदर्पण समीकरणMirror equation
If rays from a point actually meet at another point after reflection/refraction, that point is a real image; if they only appear to diverge from it when produced backwards, it is a virtual image. To locate an image we need just two rays from the object’s top. The handy ones for a mirror: (i) a ray parallel to the axis reflects through F (concave) or as if from F (convex); (ii) a ray through C (or aimed at C) hits along the normal and retraces its path; (iii) a ray through F (or aimed at F) reflects parallel to the axis; (iv) a ray striking the pole reflects symmetrically about the axis.यदि किसी बिंदु से चली किरणें परावर्तन/अपवर्तन के बाद सचमुच किसी दूसरे बिंदु पर मिलें, तो वह वास्तविक प्रतिबिंब है; यदि वे पीछे बढ़ाने पर उससे केवल फैलती प्रतीत हों, तो वह आभासी प्रतिबिंब है। प्रतिबिंब ढूँढने के लिए वस्तु के शीर्ष से केवल दो किरणें चाहिए। दर्पण के लिए सुविधाजनक: (i) अक्ष के समांतर किरण परावर्तन के बाद F से होकर जाती है (अवतल) या F से आती प्रतीत होती है (उत्तल); (ii) C से होकर (या C की ओर) जाती किरण अभिलंबवत् पड़कर उसी पथ पर लौटती है; (iii) F से होकर (या F की ओर) जाती किरण अक्ष के समांतर परावर्तित होती है; (iv) ध्रुव पर पड़ने वाली किरण अक्ष के सापेक्ष सममित परावर्तित होती है।Agar kisi point se chali rays reflection/refraction ke baad sach mein kisi doosre point par milein, to wo real image hai; agar wo peeche badhane par usse sirf phailti hui lagein, to wo virtual image hai. Image dhoondhne ke liye object ke top se sirf do rays chahiye. Mirror ke liye aasaan rays: (i) axis ke parallel ray reflection ke baad F se hokar jaati hai (concave) ya F se aati lagti hai (convex); (ii) C se hokar (ya C ki taraf) jaati ray normal ke along padkar usi path par laut-ti hai; (iii) F se hokar (ya F ki taraf) jaati ray axis ke parallel reflect hoti hai; (iv) pole par padne wali ray axis ke respect mein symmetric reflect hoti hai.If rays from a point really meet at another point after reflection or refraction, that point is a real image. If they only seem to come from that point when we extend them backwards, it is a virtual image. To find an image, we need just two rays from the top of the object. Useful rays for a mirror: (i) a ray parallel to the axis reflects through F (concave) or as if coming from F (convex); (ii) a ray through C (or heading towards C) hits along the normal and comes back on the same path; (iii) a ray through F (or heading towards F) reflects parallel to the axis; (iv) a ray hitting the pole reflects at an equal angle on the other side of the axis.
From two pairs of similar triangles in this figure (A′B′F ~ MPF and A′B′P ~ ABP) we get B′F/FP = B′P/BP. Now apply signs: light goes from the object to the mirror (positive direction), so B′P = −v, FP = −f, BP = −u. This gives (−v + f)/(−f) = (−v)/(−u), which simplifies to the mirror equation:इस चित्र के समरूप त्रिभुजों के दो युग्मों (A′B′F ~ MPF और A′B′P ~ ABP) से B′F/FP = B′P/BP मिलता है। अब चिह्न लगाइए: प्रकाश वस्तु से दर्पण की ओर जाता है (धनात्मक दिशा), अतः B′P = −v, FP = −f, BP = −u। इससे (−v + f)/(−f) = (−v)/(−u) मिलता है, जो सरल होकर दर्पण समीकरण बनता है:Is figure ke similar triangles ke do pairs (A′B′F ~ MPF aur A′B′P ~ ABP) se B′F/FP = B′P/BP milta hai. Ab signs lagaiye: light object se mirror ki taraf jaati hai (positive direction), isliye B′P = −v, FP = −f, BP = −u. Isse (−v + f)/(−f) = (−v)/(−u) milta hai, jo simplify hokar mirror equation banta hai:This figure has two pairs of similar triangles (A′B′F ~ MPF and A′B′P ~ ABP). From them we get B′F/FP = B′P/BP. Now put in the signs. Light goes from the object to the mirror (this is the positive direction), so B′P = −v, FP = −f and BP = −u. This gives (−v + f)/(−f) = (−v)/(−u). Simplify it to get the mirror equation:
Linear magnification m is the ratio of image height to object height. Triangles A′B′P and ABP give B′A′/BA = B′P/BP; with signs (−h′)/h = (−v)/(−u), so:रैखिक आवर्धन m प्रतिबिंब की ऊँचाई और वस्तु की ऊँचाई का अनुपात है। त्रिभुज A′B′P और ABP से B′A′/BA = B′P/BP; चिह्नों सहित (−h′)/h = (−v)/(−u), अतः:Linear magnification m image height aur object height ka ratio hai. Triangles A′B′P aur ABP se B′A′/BA = B′P/BP; signs ke saath (−h′)/h = (−v)/(−u), isliye:Linear magnification m is the image height divided by the object height. Triangles A′B′P and ABP give B′A′/BA = B′P/BP. With signs, (−h′)/h = (−v)/(−u). So:
The same two formulas work for the virtual images too — the concave mirror with the object between P and F (shaving/make-up mirror: erect and magnified) and the convex mirror (always erect and diminished, which is why it is used as a vehicle’s rear-view mirror — it shows a wide field).यही दो सूत्र आभासी प्रतिबिंबों के लिए भी चलते हैं — वस्तु P और F के बीच होने पर अवतल दर्पण (दाढ़ी/मेकअप दर्पण: सीधा और बड़ा) और उत्तल दर्पण (सदा सीधा और छोटा, इसलिए वाहनों में पीछे देखने का दर्पण — बड़ा क्षेत्र दिखाता है)।Yahi do formulas virtual images ke liye bhi chalte hain — object P aur F ke beech ho to concave mirror (shaving/make-up mirror: seedha aur bada) aur convex mirror (hamesha seedha aur chhota, isliye vehicles ka rear-view mirror — bada area dikhata hai).The same two formulas also work for virtual images. One case is a concave mirror with the object between P and F — like a shaving or make-up mirror, which gives an erect (upright) and magnified image. The other is a convex mirror, which always gives an erect and smaller image. This is why a convex mirror is used as a rear-view mirror in vehicles — it shows a wide area.
Choose a concave/convex mirror or a convex/concave lens. Drag the object (or use the sliders) and watch the principal rays, the image, and live u, v, f, m with their signs.अवतल/उत्तल दर्पण या उत्तल/अवतल लेंस चुनें। वस्तु को खींचें (या स्लाइडर से) और मुख्य किरणें, प्रतिबिंब और चिह्नों सहित u, v, f, m लाइव देखें।Concave/convex mirror ya convex/concave lens chuniye. Object ko drag kijiye (ya sliders se) aur principal rays, image aur signs ke saath u, v, f, m live dekhiye.
Concave mirror cheat-sheet (object moving in from far away): beyond C → real, inverted, diminished, between F and C; at C → at C, same size; between C and F → beyond C, enlarged; at F → at infinity; between F and P → virtual, erect, enlarged, behind the mirror. Convex mirror: always virtual, erect, diminished, between P and F.अवतल दर्पण सार (वस्तु दूर से पास आती हुई): C से परे → वास्तविक, उलटा, छोटा, F और C के बीच; C पर → C पर, समान आकार; C और F के बीच → C से परे, बड़ा; F पर → अनंत पर; F और P के बीच → आभासी, सीधा, बड़ा, दर्पण के पीछे। उत्तल दर्पण: सदा आभासी, सीधा, छोटा, P और F के बीच।Concave mirror cheat-sheet (object door se paas aata hua): C se pare → real, inverted, chhota, F aur C ke beech; C par → C par, same size; C aur F ke beech → C se pare, bada; F par → infinity par; F aur P ke beech → virtual, seedha, bada, mirror ke peeche. Convex mirror: hamesha virtual, seedha, chhota, P aur F ke beech.Concave mirror quick table (as the object moves in from far away): beyond C → image is real, inverted, smaller, between F and C; at C → image at C, same size; between C and F → image beyond C, bigger; at F → image at infinity; between F and P → image is virtual, erect, bigger, behind the mirror. Convex mirror: image is always virtual, erect, smaller, between P and F.
Suppose the lower half of a concave mirror’s reflecting surface is covered with an opaque (non-reflecting) material. What effect will this have on the image of an object placed in front of it?मान लीजिए किसी अवतल दर्पण की परावर्तक सतह का निचला आधा भाग अपारदर्शी (अपरावर्तक) पदार्थ से ढक दिया जाता है। इसके सामने रखी वस्तु के प्रतिबिंब पर क्या प्रभाव पड़ेगा?Maan lijiye kisi concave mirror ki reflecting surface ka neeche wala aadha hissa opaque (non-reflecting) material se dhak diya gaya. Iske saamne rakhe object ki image par kya asar padega?Suppose the lower half of a concave mirror’s shiny surface is covered with an opaque (non-reflecting) material. What happens to the image of an object placed in front of it?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
You might expect only half the object to be seen — but every point of the object still sends rays to the uncovered half, and the laws of reflection hold at every point of that half. So the image is of the whole object. Only fewer rays form it: the image is less bright (here about half the intensity).आप सोच सकते हैं कि वस्तु का केवल आधा भाग दिखेगा — परंतु वस्तु का हर बिंदु अभी भी खुले आधे भाग पर किरणें भेजता है, और उस भाग के हर बिंदु पर परावर्तन के नियम लागू हैं। इसलिए प्रतिबिंब पूरी वस्तु का बनता है। केवल कम किरणें उसे बनाती हैं: प्रतिबिंब कम चमकीला होता है (यहाँ लगभग आधी तीव्रता)।Aap soch sakte hain ki object ka sirf aadha hissa dikhega — par object ka har point ab bhi khule aadhe hisse par rays bhejta hai, aur us hisse ke har point par reflection ke laws lagte hain. Isliye image poore object ki banti hai. Bas kam rays use banati hain: image kam bright hoti hai (yahan lagbhag aadhi intensity).You may think only half the object will be seen. But every point of the object still sends rays to the uncovered half, and the laws of reflection still work at every point of that half. So the image shows the whole object. Only fewer rays make it, so the image is less bright (here about half the intensity).
A mobile phone lies along the principal axis of a concave mirror (Fig. 9.7). Show the formation of its image. Why is the magnification not uniform? Does the distortion depend on where the phone is?एक मोबाइल फ़ोन अवतल दर्पण के मुख्य अक्ष के अनुदिश रखा है (चित्र 9.7)। इसके प्रतिबिंब का बनना दिखाइए। आवर्धन एकसमान क्यों नहीं है? क्या विकृति फ़ोन की स्थिति पर निर्भर करती है?Ek mobile phone concave mirror ke principal axis ke along rakha hai (Fig. 9.7). Iski image banna dikhaiye. Magnification uniform kyun nahi hai? Kya distortion phone ki position par depend karta hai?A mobile phone lies along the principal axis of a concave mirror (Fig. 9.7). Show how its image is formed. Why is the magnification not the same everywhere? Does the distortion depend on where the phone is placed?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
The end of the phone standing at C (in the plane through C perpendicular to the axis) is imaged in the same plane and with the same size, B′C = BC. Every other part is at a different distance u, so each has its own magnification m = −v/u: parts beyond C are imaged smaller, parts between C and F larger. Hence the image is distorted. Yes — the distortion depends on the position: move the phone and the spread of u values (and so of m) changes.C पर खड़ा फ़ोन का सिरा (C से होकर अक्ष के लंबवत् तल में) उसी तल में और उसी आकार का प्रतिबिंबित होता है, B′C = BC। बाकी हर भाग अलग दूरी u पर है, इसलिए हर भाग का अपना आवर्धन m = −v/u है: C से परे के भाग छोटे, C और F के बीच के भाग बड़े प्रतिबिंबित होते हैं। इसलिए प्रतिबिंब विकृत होता है। हाँ — विकृति स्थिति पर निर्भर है: फ़ोन खिसकाने पर u के मानों (और इसलिए m) का फैलाव बदल जाता है।C par khada phone ka end (C se hokar axis ke perpendicular plane mein) usi plane mein aur usi size ka image hota hai, B′C = BC. Baaki har hissa alag distance u par hai, isliye har hisse ka apna magnification m = −v/u hai: C se pare ke hisse chhote, C aur F ke beech ke hisse bade image hote hain. Isliye image distorted hoti hai. Haan — distortion position par depend karta hai: phone khiskaane par u ki values (aur isliye m) ka spread badal jaata hai.The end of the phone that stands at C (in the plane through C, at right angles to the axis) forms its image in the same plane, at the same size: B′C = BC. Every other part of the phone is at a different distance u, so each part has its own magnification m = −v/u. Parts beyond C form smaller images; parts between C and F form bigger images. So the image is distorted (out of shape). Yes, the distortion depends on the position: if you move the phone, the range of u values (and so of m) changes.
An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 15 cm. Find the position, nature and magnification of the image in each case.वक्रता त्रिज्या 15 cm वाले अवतल दर्पण के सामने वस्तु (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm पर रखी है। प्रत्येक स्थिति में प्रतिबिंब की स्थिति, प्रकृति और आवर्धन ज्ञात कीजिए।Radius of curvature 15 cm wale concave mirror ke saamne object (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm par rakha hai. Har case mein image ki position, nature aur magnification nikaliye.An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror with radius of curvature 15 cm. Find the position, nature and magnification of the image in each case.
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
f = R/2 = −15/2 = −7.5 cm (concave).f = R/2 = −15/2 = −7.5 cm (अवतल)।f = R/2 = −15/2 = −7.5 cm (concave).Focal length: f = R/2 = −15/2 = −7.5 cm (concave, so negative).
(i) u = −10 cm: 1/v = 1/f − 1/u = −1/7.5 + 1/10 = −1/30 → v = −30 cm. The image is 30 cm in front of the mirror (same side as the object). m = −v/u = −(−30)/(−10) = −3: real, inverted, magnified 3 times.(i) u = −10 cm: 1/v = 1/f − 1/u = −1/7.5 + 1/10 = −1/30 → v = −30 cm। प्रतिबिंब दर्पण के सामने 30 cm पर (वस्तु की ओर)। m = −v/u = −(−30)/(−10) = −3: वास्तविक, उलटा, 3 गुना बड़ा।(i) u = −10 cm: 1/v = 1/f − 1/u = −1/7.5 + 1/10 = −1/30 → v = −30 cm. Image mirror ke saamne 30 cm par (object wali side). m = −v/u = −(−30)/(−10) = −3: real, inverted, 3 guna bada.(i) u = −10 cm. Using the mirror formula: 1/v = 1/f − 1/u = −1/7.5 + 1/10 = −1/30, so v = −30 cm. The image is 30 cm in front of the mirror (on the same side as the object). m = −v/u = −(−30)/(−10) = −3. So the image is real, inverted and 3 times bigger.
(ii) u = −5 cm: 1/v = −1/7.5 + 1/5 = 1/15 → v = +15 cm, i.e. 15 cm behind the mirror. m = −(15)/(−5) = +3: virtual, erect, magnified 3 times.(ii) u = −5 cm: 1/v = −1/7.5 + 1/5 = 1/15 → v = +15 cm, यानी दर्पण के पीछे 15 cm। m = −(15)/(−5) = +3: आभासी, सीधा, 3 गुना बड़ा।(ii) u = −5 cm: 1/v = −1/7.5 + 1/5 = 1/15 → v = +15 cm, yaani mirror ke peeche 15 cm. m = −(15)/(−5) = +3: virtual, seedha, 3 guna bada.(ii) u = −5 cm: 1/v = −1/7.5 + 1/5 = 1/15, so v = +15 cm. This means the image is 15 cm behind the mirror. m = −(15)/(−5) = +3. So the image is virtual, erect and 3 times bigger.
Sitting in a parked car, you see a jogger approaching in the side-view mirror of R = 2 m. The jogger runs at 5 m s⁻¹. How fast does the image appear to move when the jogger is (a) 39 m, (b) 29 m, (c) 19 m, (d) 9 m away?खड़ी कार में बैठे आप R = 2 m वाले साइड-व्यू दर्पण में एक धावक को आते देखते हैं। धावक 5 m s⁻¹ से दौड़ रहा है। जब धावक (a) 39 m, (b) 29 m, (c) 19 m, (d) 9 m दूर हो, तो प्रतिबिंब कितनी तेज़ी से चलता प्रतीत होगा?Khadi car mein baithe aap R = 2 m wale side-view mirror mein ek jogger ko aate dekhte hain. Jogger 5 m s⁻¹ se daud raha hai. Jab jogger (a) 39 m, (b) 29 m, (c) 19 m, (d) 9 m door ho, to image kitni tezi se chalti lagegi?You are sitting in a parked car. You see a jogger coming towards you in the side-view mirror, which has R = 2 m. The jogger runs at 5 m s⁻¹. How fast does the image seem to move when the jogger is (a) 39 m, (b) 29 m, (c) 19 m, (d) 9 m away?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
The side-view mirror is convex, so f = R/2 = +1 m. From the mirror equation, v = fu/(u − f).साइड-व्यू दर्पण उत्तल है, अतः f = R/2 = +1 m। दर्पण समीकरण से v = fu/(u − f)।Side-view mirror convex hai, isliye f = R/2 = +1 m. Mirror equation se v = fu/(u − f).A side-view mirror is convex, so f = R/2 = +1 m. Rearranging the mirror equation gives v = fu/(u − f).
(a) u = −39 m: v = (−39)(1)/(−40) = 39/40 m. One second later u = −34 m: v = 34/35 m. Shift in 1 s = 39/40 − 34/35 = (1365 − 1360)/1400 = 5/1400 = 1/280 m, so the image moves at about 1/280 m s⁻¹.(a) u = −39 m: v = (−39)(1)/(−40) = 39/40 m। एक सेकंड बाद u = −34 m: v = 34/35 m। 1 s में विस्थापन = 39/40 − 34/35 = (1365 − 1360)/1400 = 5/1400 = 1/280 m, अतः प्रतिबिंब लगभग 1/280 m s⁻¹ से चलता है।(a) u = −39 m: v = (−39)(1)/(−40) = 39/40 m. Ek second baad u = −34 m: v = 34/35 m. 1 s mein shift = 39/40 − 34/35 = (1365 − 1360)/1400 = 5/1400 = 1/280 m, isliye image lagbhag 1/280 m s⁻¹ se chalti hai.(a) u = −39 m: v = (−39)(1)/(−40) = 39/40 m. One second later the jogger is 5 m closer, so u = −34 m: v = 34/35 m. The image moves in 1 s by 39/40 − 34/35 = (1365 − 1360)/1400 = 5/1400 = 1/280 m. So the image moves at about 1/280 m s⁻¹.
Similarly for u = −29 m, −19 m and −9 m the image speeds come out as 1/150, 1/60 and 1/10 m s⁻¹. Although the jogger runs steadily, the image seems to speed up a lot as he/she comes closer — you notice this in any stationary car or bus.इसी प्रकार u = −29 m, −19 m और −9 m के लिए प्रतिबिंब की चाल 1/150, 1/60 और 1/10 m s⁻¹ आती है। धावक समान चाल से दौड़ता है, फिर भी पास आने पर प्रतिबिंब बहुत तेज़ होता दिखता है — यह किसी भी खड़ी कार या बस में दिखता है।Isi tarah u = −29 m, −19 m aur −9 m ke liye image speeds 1/150, 1/60 aur 1/10 m s⁻¹ aati hain. Jogger same speed se daudta hai, phir bhi paas aane par image bahut tez hoti lagti hai — ye kisi bhi khadi car ya bus mein dikhta hai.In the same way, for u = −29 m, −19 m and −9 m, the image speeds come out as 1/150, 1/60 and 1/10 m s⁻¹. The jogger runs at a steady speed, but the image seems to speed up a lot as the jogger comes closer. You can notice this from any parked car or bus.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
9.3Refractionअपवर्तनRefraction
When light meets another transparent medium, part of it is reflected and the rest enters the second medium. For oblique incidence (0° < i < 90°) the direction of the ray changes at the interface — this is refraction. Snell’s laws: (i) the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in one plane; (ii) the ratio sin i / sin r is a constant for the given pair of media (i and r are measured from the normal):जब प्रकाश किसी दूसरे पारदर्शी माध्यम से मिलता है, तो उसका कुछ भाग परावर्तित होता है और शेष दूसरे माध्यम में चला जाता है। तिरछे आपतन (0° < i < 90°) में किरण की दिशा अंतरापृष्ठ पर बदल जाती है — यह अपवर्तन है। स्नेल के नियम: (i) आपतित किरण, अपवर्तित किरण और आपतन बिंदु पर अभिलंब एक ही तल में होते हैं; (ii) दिए गए माध्यम-युग्म के लिए sin i / sin r नियत होता है (i और r अभिलंब से मापे जाते हैं):Jab light kisi doosre transparent medium se milti hai, to uska kuch hissa reflect hota hai aur baaki doosre medium mein chala jaata hai. Tirchhe incidence (0° < i < 90°) mein ray ki direction interface par badal jaati hai — ye refraction hai. Snell ke laws: (i) incident ray, refracted ray aur point of incidence par normal ek hi plane mein hote hain; (ii) diye gaye media pair ke liye sin i / sin r constant hota hai (i aur r normal se naape jaate hain):Light bends when it goes from one see-through material into another.
If n₂₁ > 1, r < i: the ray bends towards the normal and medium 2 is optically denser. If n₂₁ < 1, r > i: the ray bends away from the normal (denser → rarer). Also n₁₂ = 1/n₂₁, and n₃₂ = n₃₁ × n₁₂.यदि n₂₁ > 1, तो r < i: किरण अभिलंब की ओर मुड़ती है और माध्यम 2 प्रकाशतः सघन है। यदि n₂₁ < 1, तो r > i: किरण अभिलंब से दूर मुड़ती है (सघन → विरल)। साथ ही n₁₂ = 1/n₂₁ और n₃₂ = n₃₁ × n₁₂।Agar n₂₁ > 1, to r < i: ray normal ki taraf mudti hai aur medium 2 optically denser hai. Agar n₂₁ < 1, to r > i: ray normal se door mudti hai (denser → rarer). Saath hi n₁₂ = 1/n₂₁, aur n₃₂ = n₃₁ × n₁₂.If n₂₁ > 1, then r < i: the ray bends towards the normal, and medium 2 is optically denser. If n₂₁ < 1, then r > i: the ray bends away from the normal (going from denser to rarer). Also, n₁₂ = 1/n₂₁, and n₃₂ = n₃₁ × n₁₂.
Optical density ≠ mass density. Optical density is about the speed of light in the medium. Turpentine is lighter than water (lower mass density) but optically denser (higher refractive index).प्रकाशिक घनत्व ≠ द्रव्यमान घनत्व। प्रकाशिक घनत्व माध्यम में प्रकाश की चाल से जुड़ा है। तारपीन का तेल पानी से हल्का (कम द्रव्यमान घनत्व) है, पर प्रकाशतः सघन (अधिक अपवर्तनांक)।Optical density ≠ mass density. Optical density medium mein light ki speed se juda hai. Turpentine paani se halka (kam mass density) hai, par optically denser (zyada refractive index).Optical density is not the same as mass density. Optical density is about how fast light travels in the material. Turpentine is lighter than water (lower mass density) but optically denser (higher refractive index).
Glass slab: refraction happens twice (air → glass → air). Because the faces are parallel, r₂ = i₁: the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray — no deviation — but it is shifted sideways (lateral shift).काँच की पट्टिका: अपवर्तन दो बार होता है (वायु → काँच → वायु)। फलक समांतर हैं, इसलिए r₂ = i₁: निर्गत किरण आपतित किरण के समांतर होती है — कोई विचलन नहीं — परंतु बगल में खिसक जाती है (पार्श्विक विस्थापन)।Glass slab: refraction do baar hota hai (air → glass → air). Faces parallel hain, isliye r₂ = i₁: emergent ray incident ray ke parallel hoti hai — koi deviation nahi — par side mein khisak jaati hai (lateral shift).Glass slab: light refracts (bends) twice — from air into glass, and from glass back into air. Since the two faces are parallel, r₂ = i₁. So the ray that comes out is parallel to the ray that went in — there is no deviation (change of direction) — but it is shifted to one side. This is called lateral shift.
Apparent depth: the bottom of a tank of water looks raised. For viewing near the normal, the apparent depth h₁ equals the real depth h₂ divided by the refractive index of the liquid.आभासी गहराई: पानी से भरी टंकी का तल ऊपर उठा दिखता है। अभिलंब के पास से देखने पर आभासी गहराई h₁, वास्तविक गहराई h₂ को द्रव के अपवर्तनांक से भाग देने के बराबर होती है।Apparent depth: paani se bhari tank ka bottom upar utha dikhta hai. Normal ke paas se dekhne par apparent depth h₁, real depth h₂ ko liquid ke refractive index se divide karne ke barabar hoti hai.Apparent depth: the bottom of a tank of water looks raised (less deep than it is). When you look from almost straight above (near the normal), the apparent depth h₁ equals the real depth h₂ divided by the refractive index of the liquid.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
9.4Total Internal Reflectionपूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तनTotal Internal Reflection
When light goes from a denser to a rarer medium, part is reflected back into the denser medium (internal reflection) and part is refracted, bending away from the normal (r > i). As i increases, r increases faster, until at a certain i the refracted ray grazes the surface (r = 90°). For any larger i, refraction is impossible and all the light is reflected — total internal reflection (TIR). Ordinary reflection always transmits some light; in TIR nothing is transmitted.जब प्रकाश सघन से विरल माध्यम में जाता है, तो उसका कुछ भाग सघन माध्यम में वापस परावर्तित होता है (आंतरिक परावर्तन) और कुछ अपवर्तित होकर अभिलंब से दूर मुड़ता है (r > i)। i बढ़ने पर r और तेज़ी से बढ़ता है, जब तक किसी i पर अपवर्तित किरण सतह को छूती हुई न चले (r = 90°)। इससे बड़े किसी भी i पर अपवर्तन असंभव है और सारा प्रकाश परावर्तित होता है — पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन। साधारण परावर्तन में सदा कुछ प्रकाश पार जाता है; पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन में कुछ भी पार नहीं जाता।Jab light denser se rarer medium mein jaati hai, to uska kuch hissa denser medium mein wapas reflect hota hai (internal reflection) aur kuch refract hokar normal se door mudta hai (r > i). i badhne par r aur tezi se badhta hai, jab tak kisi i par refracted ray surface ko chhooti hui na chale (r = 90°). Isse bade kisi bhi i par refraction impossible hai aur saari light reflect hoti hai — total internal reflection (TIR). Normal reflection mein hamesha kuch light paar jaati hai; TIR mein kuch bhi paar nahi jaata.Going from glass or water into air, light bends away. Tilt it enough and it cannot get out at all — it all bounces back inside.
The angle of incidence (in the denser medium) for which the angle of refraction is 90° is the critical angle ic. Putting r = 90° in Snell’s law:सघन माध्यम में वह आपतन कोण जिसके लिए अपवर्तन कोण 90° हो, क्रांतिक कोण ic है। स्नेल नियम में r = 90° रखने पर:Denser medium mein wo angle of incidence jiske liye angle of refraction 90° ho, critical angle ic hai. Snell’s law mein r = 90° rakhne par:Light goes from a denser medium towards a rarer one. The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction becomes 90° is called the critical angle ic. Put r = 90° in Snell’s law:
| Substanceपदार्थSubstance | n | ic |
|---|---|---|
| WaterजलWater | 1.33 | 48.75° |
| Crown glassक्राउन काँचCrown glass | 1.52 | 41.14° |
| Dense flint glassसघन फ्लिंट काँचDense flint glass | 1.62 | 37.31°* |
| DiamondहीराDiamond | 2.42 | 24.41° |
* Value as printed in NCERT. Check: sin⁻¹(1/1.62) = 38.12°; 37.31° would correspond to n ≈ 1.65.* NCERT में छपा मान। जाँच: sin⁻¹(1/1.62) = 38.12°; 37.31° लगभग n ≈ 1.65 के अनुरूप होगा।* NCERT mein chhapa value. Check: sin⁻¹(1/1.62) = 38.12°; 37.31° lagbhag n ≈ 1.65 ke liye hoga.
Light goes from a denser medium (water, glass or diamond) into air. Increase the angle: the refracted ray bends away, grazes the surface at ic, then disappears — total internal reflection.प्रकाश सघन माध्यम (जल, काँच या हीरा) से वायु में जाता है। कोण बढ़ाइए: अपवर्तित किरण दूर मुड़ती है, ic पर सतह को छूती है, फिर गायब — पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन।Light denser medium (paani, glass ya diamond) se air mein jaati hai. Angle badhaiye: refracted ray door mudti hai, ic par surface ko chhooti hai, phir gaayab — total internal reflection.
A demonstration with a laser pointer: make water slightly turbid with a few drops of milk so the beam is visible. Shine the beam from below so it meets the upper water surface: you see partial reflection (a spot on the table) and partial refraction (a spot on the ceiling). Make the beam strike the surface more obliquely until the refracted beam vanishes — total internal reflection. Pour the water into a long test tube and shine the laser from the top so it reflects off the walls again and again — just like an optical fibre. (Never look into a laser beam or point it at anyone’s face.)लेज़र पॉइंटर से प्रदर्शन: दूध की कुछ बूँदों से पानी को थोड़ा धुँधला कीजिए ताकि किरण दिखे। किरण नीचे से डालें ताकि वह पानी की ऊपरी सतह पर पड़े: आंशिक परावर्तन (मेज़ पर धब्बा) और आंशिक अपवर्तन (छत पर धब्बा) दिखेगा। किरण को सतह पर और तिरछा डालें जब तक अपवर्तित किरण गायब न हो जाए — पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन। पानी को लंबी परखनली में डालकर ऊपर से लेज़र डालें ताकि वह दीवारों से बार-बार परावर्तित हो — बिल्कुल प्रकाशिक तंतु जैसा। (लेज़र किरण में कभी न देखें, न किसी के चेहरे पर डालें।)Laser pointer se demonstration: doodh ki kuch boondon se paani ko thoda dhundhla kijiye taaki beam dikhe. Beam neeche se daaliye taaki wo paani ki upar wali surface par pade: partial reflection (table par spot) aur partial refraction (chhat par spot) dikhega. Beam ko surface par aur tirchha daaliye jab tak refracted beam gaayab na ho jaaye — total internal reflection. Paani ko lambi test tube mein daalkar upar se laser daaliye taaki wo walls se baar-baar reflect ho — bilkul optical fibre jaisa. (Laser beam mein kabhi mat dekhiye, na kisi ke chehre par daaliye.)An activity with a laser pointer: add a few drops of milk to water to make it a little cloudy, so you can see the beam. Shine the beam from below so it hits the top surface of the water. You see part of it reflected (a spot on the table) and part of it refracted (a spot on the ceiling). Now make the beam hit the surface more and more slantingly, until the refracted beam disappears — this is total internal reflection. Pour the water into a long test tube and shine the laser from the top. The beam reflects off the walls again and again — just like in an optical fibre. (Never look into a laser beam or point it at anyone’s face.)
9.4.1Total internal reflection in nature and its technological applicationsप्रकृति में पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन और इसके तकनीकी अनुप्रयोगNature mein TIR aur iske technological applications
(i) Prisms: a 45°–90°–45° prism can bend light by 90° or 180°, or invert an image without changing its size. Inside, the light meets a face at 45°, so the critical angle of the glass must be less than 45° — true for crown glass (41.14°) and dense flint glass (Table 9.1).(i) प्रिज़्म: 45°–90°–45° प्रिज़्म प्रकाश को 90° या 180° मोड़ सकता है, या प्रतिबिंब को बिना आकार बदले उलट सकता है। अंदर प्रकाश फलक पर 45° पर पड़ता है, अतः काँच का क्रांतिक कोण 45° से कम होना चाहिए — क्राउन काँच (41.14°) और सघन फ्लिंट काँच के लिए यह सत्य है (सारणी 9.1)।(i) Prisms: 45°–90°–45° prism light ko 90° ya 180° mod sakta hai, ya image ko bina size badle ulta kar sakta hai. Andar light face par 45° par padti hai, isliye glass ka critical angle 45° se kam hona chahiye — crown glass (41.14°) aur dense flint glass ke liye ye sach hai (Table 9.1).(i) Prisms: a 45°–90°–45° prism can turn light by 90° or by 180°, or turn an image upside down without changing its size. Inside the prism, the light hits a face at 45°. So the critical angle of the glass must be less than 45°. This is true for crown glass (41.14°) and dense flint glass (Table 9.1).
(ii) Optical fibres carry audio and video signals over long distances. Each fibre has a core of high-quality glass/quartz surrounded by a cladding of lower refractive index. Light entering one end at a suitable angle strikes the core–cladding boundary at more than the critical angle every time, so it is totally reflected again and again and comes out at the far end with very little loss — even when the fibre is bent. Bundles of fibres act as light pipes to examine internal organs (oesophagus, stomach, intestines) and in decorative fibre lamps. With purified silica, more than 95% of the light gets through 1 km of fibre.(ii) प्रकाशिक तंतु ऑडियो और वीडियो संकेतों को लंबी दूरी तक ले जाते हैं। हर तंतु में उच्च गुणवत्ता के काँच/क्वार्ट्ज़ का क्रोड होता है, जिसके चारों ओर कम अपवर्तनांक का आवरण (क्लैडिंग) होता है। एक सिरे पर उचित कोण से प्रवेश करने वाला प्रकाश हर बार क्रोड–आवरण सीमा पर क्रांतिक कोण से अधिक पर पड़ता है, इसलिए बार-बार पूर्णतः परावर्तित होकर बहुत कम हानि के साथ दूसरे सिरे से निकलता है — तंतु मुड़ा हो तब भी। तंतुओं के बंडल आंतरिक अंगों (ग्रासनली, आमाशय, आँत) की जाँच में प्रकाश नलिका और सजावटी लैंपों में प्रयुक्त होते हैं। शुद्ध सिलिका तंतु में 1 km के बाद भी 95% से अधिक प्रकाश पहुँचता है।(ii) Optical fibres audio aur video signals ko lambi doori tak le jaate hain. Har fibre mein high-quality glass/quartz ka core hota hai, jiske chaaron taraf kam refractive index ki cladding hoti hai. Ek end par sahi angle se enter karne wali light har baar core–cladding boundary par critical angle se zyada par padti hai, isliye baar-baar totally reflect hokar bahut kam loss ke saath doosre end se nikalti hai — fibre muda ho tab bhi. Fibres ke bundle internal organs (food pipe, stomach, intestines) dekhne mein light pipe aur decorative lamps mein use hote hain. Purified silica fibre mein 1 km ke baad bhi 95% se zyada light pahunchti hai.(ii) Optical fibres carry sound and video signals over long distances. Each fibre has a core of high-quality glass or quartz, covered by a cladding with a lower refractive index. Light enters one end at a suitable angle. Every time it hits the boundary between core and cladding, the angle is more than the critical angle. So the light is totally reflected again and again and comes out at the far end with very little loss — even when the fibre is bent. Bundles of fibres are used as light pipes to look inside body organs (food pipe or oesophagus, stomach, intestines), and in decorative fibre lamps. With purified silica, more than 95% of the light passes through 1 km of fibre.
Beyond the book (not in the current NCERT text): a mirage on a hot road happens because air near the hot ground is rarer; light from the sky bending through the layers is finally totally reflected upwards, so you “see” the sky as water on the road. A diamond sparkles because its critical angle is tiny (24.4°): light entering it is totally reflected many times before it escapes.पुस्तक से आगे (वर्तमान NCERT पाठ में नहीं): गर्म सड़क पर मरीचिका इसलिए दिखती है कि गर्म ज़मीन के पास की वायु विरल होती है; आकाश से आता प्रकाश परतों में मुड़ते-मुड़ते अंत में ऊपर की ओर पूर्णतः परावर्तित हो जाता है, इसलिए सड़क पर आकाश पानी जैसा “दिखता” है। हीरा इसलिए चमकता है कि उसका क्रांतिक कोण बहुत छोटा (24.4°) है: अंदर गया प्रकाश निकलने से पहले कई बार पूर्णतः परावर्तित होता है।Book se aage (current NCERT text mein nahi): garam sadak par mirage isliye dikhta hai ki garam zameen ke paas ki hawa rarer hoti hai; aasmaan se aati light layers mein mudte-mudte aakhir mein upar ki taraf totally reflect ho jaati hai, isliye sadak par aasmaan paani jaisa “dikhta” hai. Diamond isliye chamakta hai ki uska critical angle bahut chhota (24.4°) hai: andar gayi light nikalne se pehle kai baar totally reflect hoti hai.Beyond the book (not in the current NCERT text): a mirage on a hot road happens because the air near the hot ground is rarer. Light from the sky bends as it passes through the layers of air, and finally gets totally reflected upwards. So you “see” the sky as water on the road. A diamond sparkles because its critical angle is very small (24.4°). Light that enters it is totally reflected many times before it comes out.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
9.5Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lensesगोलीय पृष्ठों पर तथा लेंसों द्वारा अपवर्तनSpherical Surfaces par aur Lenses dwara Refraction
A tiny part of a curved surface is practically flat, so Snell’s law applies at every point; the normal at a point passes through the centre of curvature. A thin lens is a transparent medium bounded by two surfaces, at least one spherical. We first find the formula for one spherical surface, then apply it twice to get the lens maker’s formula and the lens formula.वक्र पृष्ठ का बहुत छोटा भाग लगभग समतल होता है, इसलिए हर बिंदु पर स्नेल नियम लागू होता है; किसी बिंदु पर अभिलंब वक्रता केंद्र से होकर जाता है। पतला लेंस दो पृष्ठों से घिरा पारदर्शी माध्यम है, जिनमें कम से कम एक गोलीय हो। पहले हम एक गोलीय पृष्ठ का सूत्र निकालते हैं, फिर उसे दो बार लगाकर लेंस मेकर सूत्र और लेंस सूत्र पाते हैं।Curved surface ka bahut chhota hissa lagbhag flat hota hai, isliye har point par Snell’s law lagta hai; kisi point par normal centre of curvature se hokar jaata hai. Thin lens do surfaces se ghira transparent medium hai, jinmein kam se kam ek spherical ho. Pehle hum ek spherical surface ka formula nikaalte hain, phir use do baar lagakar lens maker’s formula aur lens formula paate hain.A tiny part of a curved surface is almost flat, so Snell’s law works at every point. The normal at any point passes through the centre of curvature. A thin lens is a transparent material with two surfaces, at least one of which is spherical (curved). First we find the formula for one curved surface. Then we use it twice to get the lens maker’s formula and the lens formula.
9.5.1Refraction at a spherical surfaceगोलीय पृष्ठ पर अपवर्तनSpherical surface par refraction
Light goes from medium n₁ to medium n₂ across a spherical surface (pole M, centre C, radius R); the object O forms an image I. For small angles, tan ∠NOM ≈ MN/OM, tan ∠NCM ≈ MN/MC, tan ∠NIM ≈ MN/MI. In triangle NOC the exterior angle is i = MN/OM + MN/MC, and r = MN/MC − MN/MI. Snell’s law for small angles, n₁ i = n₂ r, gives n₁/OM + n₂/MI = (n₂ − n₁)/MC. With the sign convention OM = −u, MI = +v, MC = +R:प्रकाश माध्यम n₁ से माध्यम n₂ में एक गोलीय पृष्ठ (ध्रुव M, केंद्र C, त्रिज्या R) से गुज़रता है; वस्तु O का प्रतिबिंब I बनता है। छोटे कोणों के लिए tan ∠NOM ≈ MN/OM, tan ∠NCM ≈ MN/MC, tan ∠NIM ≈ MN/MI। त्रिभुज NOC में बहिष्कोण i = MN/OM + MN/MC, और r = MN/MC − MN/MI। छोटे कोणों के लिए स्नेल नियम n₁ i = n₂ r से n₁/OM + n₂/MI = (n₂ − n₁)/MC मिलता है। चिह्न परिपाटी OM = −u, MI = +v, MC = +R से:Light medium n₁ se medium n₂ mein ek spherical surface (pole M, centre C, radius R) se jaati hai; object O ki image I banti hai. Chhote angles ke liye tan ∠NOM ≈ MN/OM, tan ∠NCM ≈ MN/MC, tan ∠NIM ≈ MN/MI. Triangle NOC mein exterior angle i = MN/OM + MN/MC, aur r = MN/MC − MN/MI. Chhote angles ke liye Snell’s law n₁ i = n₂ r se n₁/OM + n₂/MI = (n₂ − n₁)/MC milta hai. Sign convention OM = −u, MI = +v, MC = +R se:Light goes from medium n₁ into medium n₂ across a curved (spherical) surface with pole M, centre C and radius R. The object O forms an image I. For small angles we can write tan ∠NOM ≈ MN/OM, tan ∠NCM ≈ MN/MC and tan ∠NIM ≈ MN/MI. In triangle NOC, the outside (exterior) angle is i = MN/OM + MN/MC. Similarly, r = MN/MC − MN/MI. Snell’s law for small angles is n₁ i = n₂ r. Putting these in gives n₁/OM + n₂/MI = (n₂ − n₁)/MC. Now apply the sign convention, OM = −u, MI = +v and MC = +R:
Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (n = 1.5, radius of curvature 20 cm). The source is 100 cm from the glass surface. Where is the image formed?वायु में रखे बिंदु स्रोत से प्रकाश एक गोलीय काँच पृष्ठ (n = 1.5, वक्रता त्रिज्या 20 cm) पर पड़ता है। स्रोत काँच के पृष्ठ से 100 cm दूर है। प्रतिबिंब कहाँ बनेगा?Air mein rakhe point source se light ek spherical glass surface (n = 1.5, radius of curvature 20 cm) par padti hai. Source glass surface se 100 cm door hai. Image kahan banegi?Light from a point source in air falls on a curved glass surface (n = 1.5, radius of curvature 20 cm). The source is 100 cm from the glass surface. Where is the image formed?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
u = −100 cm, R = +20 cm, n₁ = 1, n₂ = 1.5. Then 1.5/v + 1/100 = 0.5/20 = 1/40, so 1.5/v = 1/40 − 1/100 = 3/200 → v = +100 cm.u = −100 cm, R = +20 cm, n₁ = 1, n₂ = 1.5। तब 1.5/v + 1/100 = 0.5/20 = 1/40, अतः 1.5/v = 1/40 − 1/100 = 3/200 → v = +100 cm।u = −100 cm, R = +20 cm, n₁ = 1, n₂ = 1.5. Tab 1.5/v + 1/100 = 0.5/20 = 1/40, isliye 1.5/v = 1/40 − 1/100 = 3/200 → v = +100 cm.Write the data: u = −100 cm, R = +20 cm, n₁ = 1, n₂ = 1.5. Put them into the formula: 1.5/v + 1/100 = 0.5/20 = 1/40. So 1.5/v = 1/40 − 1/100 = 3/200, which gives v = +100 cm.
The image forms 100 cm from the surface, in the direction of the incident light (inside the glass; a real image).प्रतिबिंब पृष्ठ से 100 cm पर, आपतित प्रकाश की दिशा में बनता है (काँच के अंदर; वास्तविक प्रतिबिंब)।Image surface se 100 cm par, incident light ki direction mein banti hai (glass ke andar; real image).So the image forms 100 cm from the surface, on the side towards which the light is going (inside the glass). It is a real image.
9.5.2Refraction by a lensलेंस द्वारा अपवर्तनLens dwara refraction
Think of a double convex lens in two steps. The first surface (ABC) alone would form an image I₁ of the object O: n₁/OB + n₂/BI₁ = (n₂ − n₁)/BC₁. That I₁ acts as a virtual object for the second surface (ADC), which forms the final image I: −n₂/DI₁ + n₁/DI = (n₂ − n₁)/DC₂. For a thin lens BI₁ = DI₁; adding the two equations gives n₁/OB + n₁/DI = (n₂ − n₁)(1/BC₁ + 1/DC₂).उभयोत्तल लेंस को दो चरणों में समझिए। पहला पृष्ठ (ABC) अकेला वस्तु O का प्रतिबिंब I₁ बनाता: n₁/OB + n₂/BI₁ = (n₂ − n₁)/BC₁। यह I₁ दूसरे पृष्ठ (ADC) के लिए आभासी वस्तु बनता है, जो अंतिम प्रतिबिंब I बनाता है: −n₂/DI₁ + n₁/DI = (n₂ − n₁)/DC₂। पतले लेंस में BI₁ = DI₁; दोनों समीकरण जोड़ने पर n₁/OB + n₁/DI = (n₂ − n₁)(1/BC₁ + 1/DC₂)।Double convex lens ko do steps mein samjhiye. Pehli surface (ABC) akeli object O ki image I₁ banati: n₁/OB + n₂/BI₁ = (n₂ − n₁)/BC₁. Ye I₁ doosri surface (ADC) ke liye virtual object banta hai, jo final image I banati hai: −n₂/DI₁ + n₁/DI = (n₂ − n₁)/DC₂. Thin lens mein BI₁ = DI₁; dono equations jodne par n₁/OB + n₁/DI = (n₂ − n₁)(1/BC₁ + 1/DC₂).Think of a double convex lens in two steps. Step 1: the first surface (ABC) alone would make an image I₁ of the object O: n₁/OB + n₂/BI₁ = (n₂ − n₁)/BC₁. Step 2: this I₁ acts as a virtual object for the second surface (ADC), which makes the final image I: −n₂/DI₁ + n₁/DI = (n₂ − n₁)/DC₂. For a thin lens, BI₁ = DI₁. So when we add the two equations, the I₁ terms cancel, giving n₁/OB + n₁/DI = (n₂ − n₁)(1/BC₁ + 1/DC₂).
If the object is at infinity, the image is at the focus F and DI = f. With the signs BC₁ = +R₁ and DC₂ = −R₂, we get the lens maker’s formula — it lets an optician choose radii for a desired focal length. For a concave lens R₁ is negative and R₂ positive, so f comes out negative. A lens has two foci F and F′, equidistant from the optical centre: the one on the side of the incoming light is the first focal point, the other the second focal point.यदि वस्तु अनंत पर हो, तो प्रतिबिंब फोकस F पर बनता है और DI = f। चिह्न BC₁ = +R₁ और DC₂ = −R₂ लगाने पर लेंस मेकर सूत्र मिलता है — इससे वांछित फोकस दूरी के लिए त्रिज्याएँ चुनी जाती हैं। अवतल लेंस में R₁ ऋणात्मक और R₂ धनात्मक, अतः f ऋणात्मक आता है। लेंस के दो फोकस F और F′ प्रकाशिक केंद्र से समान दूरी पर होते हैं: आने वाले प्रकाश की ओर वाला प्रथम फोकस बिंदु, दूसरा द्वितीय फोकस बिंदु।Agar object infinity par ho, to image focus F par banti hai aur DI = f. Signs BC₁ = +R₁ aur DC₂ = −R₂ lagane par lens maker’s formula milta hai — isse chahi gayi focal length ke liye radii chuni jaati hain. Concave lens mein R₁ negative aur R₂ positive, isliye f negative aata hai. Lens ke do foci F aur F′ optical centre se barabar doori par hote hain: aane wali light ki taraf wala first focal point, doosra second focal point.If the object is very far away (at infinity), the image forms at the focus F, so DI = f. Using the signs BC₁ = +R₁ and DC₂ = −R₂, we get the lens maker’s formula. An optician uses it to choose the curvatures needed for a wanted focal length. For a concave lens, R₁ is negative and R₂ is positive, so f comes out negative. A lens has two foci, F and F′, at equal distances from the optical centre. The one on the side where light comes in is the first focal point; the other is the second focal point.
Combining the two results and using BO = −u, DI = +v gives the thin lens formula. Though derived for a real image by a convex lens, it holds for convex and concave lenses and for real and virtual images.दोनों परिणाम मिलाकर और BO = −u, DI = +v लगाने पर पतले लेंस का सूत्र मिलता है। यद्यपि यह उत्तल लेंस के वास्तविक प्रतिबिंब के लिए निकाला गया, यह उत्तल और अवतल दोनों लेंसों तथा वास्तविक और आभासी दोनों प्रतिबिंबों के लिए लागू है।Dono results milaakar aur BO = −u, DI = +v lagane par thin lens formula milta hai. Halaanki ye convex lens ki real image ke liye nikala gaya, ye convex aur concave dono lenses aur real aur virtual dono images ke liye lagta hai.Putting the two results together, with BO = −u and DI = +v, gives the thin lens formula. We found it for a real image made by a convex lens, but it works for both convex and concave lenses, and for both real and virtual images.
Rays to draw for a lens: (i) a ray parallel to the axis passes through the second focus F′ (convex) or appears to diverge from the first focus F (concave); (ii) a ray through the optical centre goes on undeviated; (iii) a ray through the first focus F of a convex lens — or aimed at the second focus F′ of a concave lens — emerges parallel to the axis.लेंस के लिए खींची जाने वाली किरणें: (i) अक्ष के समांतर किरण द्वितीय फोकस F′ से होकर जाती है (उत्तल) या प्रथम फोकस F से फैलती प्रतीत होती है (अवतल); (ii) प्रकाशिक केंद्र से जाने वाली किरण बिना विचलन के आगे जाती है; (iii) उत्तल लेंस के प्रथम फोकस F से होकर — या अवतल लेंस के द्वितीय फोकस F′ की ओर — जाती किरण अक्ष के समांतर निकलती है।Lens ke liye kheenchi jaane wali rays: (i) axis ke parallel ray second focus F′ se hokar jaati hai (convex) ya first focus F se phailti lagti hai (concave); (ii) optical centre se jaane wali ray bina deviation ke aage jaati hai; (iii) convex lens ke first focus F se hokar — ya concave lens ke second focus F′ ki taraf — jaati ray axis ke parallel nikalti hai.Rays to draw for a lens: (i) a ray parallel to the axis passes through the second focus F′ (convex lens), or seems to spread out from the first focus F (concave lens); (ii) a ray through the optical centre goes straight on, without bending; (iii) a ray through the first focus F of a convex lens — or heading towards the second focus F′ of a concave lens — comes out parallel to the axis.
Mirror vs lens formula: mirror 1/v + 1/u = 1/f with m = −v/u; lens 1/v − 1/u = 1/f with m = +v/u. Mixing them up is the commonest slip. Quick test: convex lens, u = −2f must give v = +2f and m = −1.दर्पण बनाम लेंस सूत्र: दर्पण 1/v + 1/u = 1/f, m = −v/u; लेंस 1/v − 1/u = 1/f, m = +v/u। इन्हें मिलाना सबसे आम गलती है। त्वरित जाँच: उत्तल लेंस, u = −2f पर v = +2f और m = −1 आना चाहिए।Mirror vs lens formula: mirror 1/v + 1/u = 1/f, m = −v/u; lens 1/v − 1/u = 1/f, m = +v/u. Inhe mix karna sabse common galti hai. Quick test: convex lens, u = −2f par v = +2f aur m = −1 aana chahiye.Mirror formula vs lens formula: for a mirror, 1/v + 1/u = 1/f and m = −v/u. For a lens, 1/v − 1/u = 1/f and m = +v/u. Mixing these up is the most common mistake. Quick check: for a convex lens, u = −2f must give v = +2f and m = −1.
A magician makes a glass lens with n = 1.47 disappear in a trough of liquid. What is the refractive index of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?एक जादूगर n = 1.47 वाले काँच के लेंस को किसी द्रव से भरी नाँद में अदृश्य कर देता है। द्रव का अपवर्तनांक क्या है? क्या यह द्रव पानी हो सकता है?Ek jaadugar n = 1.47 wale glass lens ko kisi liquid se bhari trough mein gaayab kar deta hai. Liquid ka refractive index kya hai? Kya ye liquid paani ho sakta hai?A magician makes a glass lens (n = 1.47) disappear by putting it in a trough of liquid. What is the refractive index of the liquid? Could the liquid be water?
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
To make the lens vanish, the liquid’s refractive index must equal 1.47. Then n₁ = n₂, so 1/f = 0, f → ∞: the lens acts like a plane sheet of glass and bends no light. The liquid is not water (n = 1.33); it could be glycerine.लेंस को अदृश्य करने के लिए द्रव का अपवर्तनांक 1.47 होना चाहिए। तब n₁ = n₂, अतः 1/f = 0, f → ∞: लेंस काँच की समतल प्लेट जैसा व्यवहार करता है और प्रकाश नहीं मोड़ता। द्रव पानी नहीं है (n = 1.33); यह ग्लिसरीन हो सकता है।Lens ko gaayab karne ke liye liquid ka refractive index 1.47 hona chahiye. Tab n₁ = n₂, isliye 1/f = 0, f → ∞: lens glass ki flat plate jaisa behave karta hai aur light nahi modta. Liquid paani nahi hai (n = 1.33); ye glycerine ho sakta hai.For the lens to disappear, the liquid’s refractive index must be the same as the glass: 1.47. Then n₁ = n₂, so 1/f = 0 and f → ∞ (infinite). The lens then acts like a flat sheet of glass and does not bend light at all, so you cannot see it. The liquid is not water (n = 1.33). It could be glycerine.
9.5.3Power of a lensलेंस की क्षमताLens ki power
Power measures how strongly a lens converges or diverges light. It is defined as the tangent of the angle by which the lens bends a beam parallel to the axis falling at unit distance from the optical centre: tan δ = h/f, and for h = 1 and small δ, δ = 1/f. A shorter focal length bends light more.क्षमता बताती है कि लेंस प्रकाश को कितनी प्रबलता से अभिसरित या अपसरित करता है। इसे उस कोण की स्पर्शज्या से परिभाषित करते हैं जिससे लेंस, प्रकाशिक केंद्र से इकाई दूरी पर अक्ष के समांतर पड़ने वाले पुंज को मोड़ता है: tan δ = h/f, और h = 1 तथा छोटे δ के लिए δ = 1/f। छोटी फोकस दूरी प्रकाश को अधिक मोड़ती है।Power batati hai ki lens light ko kitni strongly converge ya diverge karta hai. Ise us angle ke tangent se define karte hain jisse lens, optical centre se unit distance par axis ke parallel padne wale beam ko modta hai: tan δ = h/f, aur h = 1 tatha chhote δ ke liye δ = 1/f. Chhoti focal length light ko zyada modti hai.Power tells how strongly a lens brings light together (converges) or spreads it out (diverges). It is defined as the tangent of the angle by which the lens bends a parallel beam falling at unit distance from the optical centre: tan δ = h/f. For h = 1 and small δ, δ = 1/f. So a shorter focal length bends light more, which means more power.
(i) If f = 0.5 m for a glass lens, what is its power? (ii) The radii of curvature of the faces of a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm, and its focal length is 12 cm. What is the refractive index of the glass? (iii) A convex lens has focal length 20 cm in air. What is its focal length in water? (n of water = 1.33, n of glass = 1.5.)(i) किसी काँच के लेंस के लिए f = 0.5 m हो तो उसकी क्षमता क्या है? (ii) एक उभयोत्तल लेंस के फलकों की वक्रता त्रिज्याएँ 10 cm और 15 cm हैं और फोकस दूरी 12 cm है। काँच का अपवर्तनांक क्या है? (iii) एक उत्तल लेंस की वायु में फोकस दूरी 20 cm है। जल में इसकी फोकस दूरी क्या होगी? (जल का n = 1.33, काँच का n = 1.5)(i) Kisi glass lens ke liye f = 0.5 m ho to uski power kya hai? (ii) Ek double convex lens ke faces ki radii of curvature 10 cm aur 15 cm hain aur focal length 12 cm hai. Glass ka refractive index kya hai? (iii) Ek convex lens ki air mein focal length 20 cm hai. Paani mein iski focal length kya hogi? (Paani ka n = 1.33, glass ka n = 1.5)(i) A glass lens has f = 0.5 m. What is its power? (ii) The radii of curvature of the two faces of a double convex lens are 10 cm and 15 cm, and its focal length is 12 cm. What is the refractive index of the glass? (iii) A convex lens has focal length 20 cm in air. What is its focal length in water? (n of water = 1.33, n of glass = 1.5.)
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
(i) P = 1/f = 1/0.5 m = +2 dioptre.(i) P = 1/f = 1/0.5 m = +2 डाइऑप्टर।(i) P = 1/f = 1/0.5 m = +2 dioptre.(i) Power P = 1/f = 1/0.5 m = +2 dioptre (f must be in metres).
(ii) f = +12 cm, R₁ = +10 cm, R₂ = −15 cm (air: n = 1). Lens maker’s formula: 1/12 = (n − 1)(1/10 + 1/15) = (n − 1)(1/6), so n − 1 = 0.5 → n = 1.5.(ii) f = +12 cm, R₁ = +10 cm, R₂ = −15 cm (वायु: n = 1)। लेंस मेकर सूत्र: 1/12 = (n − 1)(1/10 + 1/15) = (n − 1)(1/6), अतः n − 1 = 0.5 → n = 1.5।(ii) f = +12 cm, R₁ = +10 cm, R₂ = −15 cm (air: n = 1). Lens maker’s formula: 1/12 = (n − 1)(1/10 + 1/15) = (n − 1)(1/6), isliye n − 1 = 0.5 → n = 1.5.(ii) Data: f = +12 cm, R₁ = +10 cm, R₂ = −15 cm (the lens is in air, so n = 1). Lens maker’s formula: 1/12 = (n − 1)(1/10 + 1/15) = (n − 1)(1/6). So n − 1 = 0.5, which gives n = 1.5.
(iii) In air: 1/20 = (1.5 − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 0.5 (1/R₁ − 1/R₂). In water the lens is relative to water: 1/f′ = (1.5/1.33 − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 0.128 × (1/10). Dividing: f′ = 20 × 0.5/0.128 → f′ ≈ +78.2 cm. In water the lens is much weaker.(iii) वायु में: 1/20 = (1.5 − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 0.5 (1/R₁ − 1/R₂)। जल में लेंस जल के सापेक्ष है: 1/f′ = (1.5/1.33 − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 0.128 × (1/10)। भाग देने पर f′ = 20 × 0.5/0.128 → f′ ≈ +78.2 cm। जल में लेंस बहुत कमज़ोर हो जाता है।(iii) Air mein: 1/20 = (1.5 − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 0.5 (1/R₁ − 1/R₂). Paani mein lens paani ke respect mein hai: 1/f′ = (1.5/1.33 − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 0.128 × (1/10). Divide karne par f′ = 20 × 0.5/0.128 → f′ ≈ +78.2 cm. Paani mein lens bahut kamzor ho jaata hai.(iii) In air: 1/20 = (1.5 − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 0.5 (1/R₁ − 1/R₂). So (1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 1/10. In water, we must use the refractive index of glass compared to water: 1/f′ = (1.5/1.33 − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂) = 0.128 × (1/10). Dividing the two equations: f′ = 20 × 0.5/0.128, which gives f′ ≈ +78.2 cm. So in water the lens becomes much weaker (it bends light less).
9.5.4Combination of thin lenses in contactसंपर्क में रखे पतले लेंसों का संयोजनContact mein rakhe thin lenses ka combination
Two thin lenses A and B (focal lengths f₁, f₂) touch each other, so their optical centres coincide at P. Lens A alone forms an image I₁ (1/v₁ − 1/u = 1/f₁); I₁ is a virtual object for B, which forms the final image I (1/v − 1/v₁ = 1/f₂). Adding: 1/v − 1/u = 1/f₁ + 1/f₂. So the pair acts like a single lens of focal length f:दो पतले लेंस A और B (फोकस दूरी f₁, f₂) एक-दूसरे को छूते हैं, अतः उनके प्रकाशिक केंद्र P पर संपाती हैं। अकेला लेंस A प्रतिबिंब I₁ बनाता (1/v₁ − 1/u = 1/f₁); I₁, B के लिए आभासी वस्तु है, जो अंतिम प्रतिबिंब I बनाता है (1/v − 1/v₁ = 1/f₂)। जोड़ने पर: 1/v − 1/u = 1/f₁ + 1/f₂। अतः युग्म फोकस दूरी f के एकल लेंस जैसा व्यवहार करता है:Do thin lenses A aur B (focal lengths f₁, f₂) ek doosre ko chhoote hain, isliye unke optical centres P par coincide karte hain. Akela lens A image I₁ banata (1/v₁ − 1/u = 1/f₁); I₁, B ke liye virtual object hai, jo final image I banata hai (1/v − 1/v₁ = 1/f₂). Jodne par: 1/v − 1/u = 1/f₁ + 1/f₂. Isliye pair focal length f ke single lens jaisa behave karta hai:Two thin lenses A and B (focal lengths f₁ and f₂) touch each other, so their optical centres are at the same point P. Lens A alone makes an image I₁: 1/v₁ − 1/u = 1/f₁. This I₁ acts as a virtual object for lens B, which makes the final image I: 1/v − 1/v₁ = 1/f₂. Add the two equations; the v₁ terms cancel: 1/v − 1/u = 1/f₁ + 1/f₂. So the pair acts like one single lens of focal length f:
Find the position of the image formed by the lens combination shown in Fig. 9.20: a convex lens (f₁ = +10 cm), then 5 cm further a concave lens (f₂ = −10 cm), then 10 cm further a convex lens (f₃ = +30 cm); the object is 30 cm to the left of the first lens.चित्र 9.20 में दिखाए लेंस संयोजन से बने प्रतिबिंब की स्थिति ज्ञात कीजिए: उत्तल लेंस (f₁ = +10 cm), उससे 5 cm आगे अवतल लेंस (f₂ = −10 cm), फिर 10 cm आगे उत्तल लेंस (f₃ = +30 cm); वस्तु पहले लेंस से 30 cm बाईं ओर है।Fig. 9.20 mein dikhaye lens combination se bani image ki position nikaliye: convex lens (f₁ = +10 cm), usse 5 cm aage concave lens (f₂ = −10 cm), phir 10 cm aage convex lens (f₃ = +30 cm); object pehle lens se 30 cm left mein hai.Find where the final image is formed by the set of lenses in Fig. 9.20. First there is a convex lens (f₁ = +10 cm). 5 cm after it there is a concave lens (f₂ = −10 cm). Then 10 cm further there is a convex lens (f₃ = +30 cm). The object is 30 cm to the left of the first lens.
Show solutionहल देखेंSolution dekhiye
First lens: 1/v₁ − 1/(−30) = 1/10 → 1/v₁ = 1/10 − 1/30 = 1/15 → v₁ = 15 cm.पहला लेंस: 1/v₁ − 1/(−30) = 1/10 → 1/v₁ = 1/10 − 1/30 = 1/15 → v₁ = 15 cm।Pehla lens: 1/v₁ − 1/(−30) = 1/10 → 1/v₁ = 1/10 − 1/30 = 1/15 → v₁ = 15 cm.First lens: use the lens formula with u = −30 cm: 1/v₁ − 1/(−30) = 1/10. So 1/v₁ = 1/10 − 1/30 = 1/15, which gives v₁ = 15 cm.
This image is (15 − 5) = 10 cm to the right of the second lens. Though real, it is a virtual object for the second lens: u₂ = +10 cm. 1/v₂ − 1/10 = −1/10 → 1/v₂ = 0 → v₂ = ∞ (the rays leave parallel).यह प्रतिबिंब दूसरे लेंस से (15 − 5) = 10 cm दाईं ओर है। वास्तविक होते हुए भी यह दूसरे लेंस के लिए आभासी वस्तु है: u₂ = +10 cm। 1/v₂ − 1/10 = −1/10 → 1/v₂ = 0 → v₂ = ∞ (किरणें समांतर निकलती हैं)।Ye image doosre lens se (15 − 5) = 10 cm right mein hai. Real hote hue bhi ye doosre lens ke liye virtual object hai: u₂ = +10 cm. 1/v₂ − 1/10 = −1/10 → 1/v₂ = 0 → v₂ = ∞ (rays parallel nikalti hain).This image is (15 − 5) = 10 cm to the right of the second lens. It is a real image, but for the second lens it acts as a virtual object (the light reaches the lens before it can form). So u₂ = +10 cm. Then 1/v₂ − 1/10 = −1/10, so 1/v₂ = 0 and v₂ = ∞. This means the rays come out parallel.
Third lens: object at infinity (u₃ = −∞): 1/v₃ = 1/∞ + 1/30 → v₃ = +30 cm. The final image is 30 cm to the right of the third lens.तीसरा लेंस: वस्तु अनंत पर (u₃ = −∞): 1/v₃ = 1/∞ + 1/30 → v₃ = +30 cm। अंतिम प्रतिबिंब तीसरे लेंस से 30 cm दाईं ओर।Teesra lens: object infinity par (u₃ = −∞): 1/v₃ = 1/∞ + 1/30 → v₃ = +30 cm. Final image teesre lens se 30 cm right mein.Third lens: parallel rays mean the object is at infinity (u₃ = −∞). So 1/v₃ = 1/∞ + 1/30, which gives v₃ = +30 cm. The final image is 30 cm to the right of the third lens.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
9.6Refraction through a Prismप्रिज़्म से अपवर्तनPrism se Refraction
A ray PQ enters a triangular glass prism ABC at face AB (angle of incidence i, refraction r₁), meets face AC at r₂ (glass to air) and leaves at the angle of emergence e. The angle between the emergent ray RS and the original direction PQ is the angle of deviation δ. In quadrilateral AQNR (N = where the normals meet) two angles are right angles, so ∠A + ∠QNR = 180°; in triangle QNR, r₁ + r₂ + ∠QNR = 180°. Hence:किरण PQ त्रिभुजाकार काँच प्रिज़्म ABC में फलक AB पर प्रवेश करती है (आपतन कोण i, अपवर्तन r₁), फलक AC पर r₂ पर पड़ती है (काँच से वायु) और निर्गमन कोण e पर निकलती है। निर्गत किरण RS और मूल दिशा PQ के बीच का कोण विचलन कोण δ है। चतुर्भुज AQNR (N = जहाँ अभिलंब मिलते हैं) में दो कोण समकोण हैं, अतः ∠A + ∠QNR = 180°; त्रिभुज QNR में r₁ + r₂ + ∠QNR = 180°। अतः:Ray PQ triangular glass prism ABC mein face AB par enter karti hai (angle of incidence i, refraction r₁), face AC par r₂ par padti hai (glass se air) aur angle of emergence e par nikalti hai. Emergent ray RS aur original direction PQ ke beech ka angle angle of deviation δ hai. Quadrilateral AQNR (N = jahan normals milte hain) mein do angles right angles hain, isliye ∠A + ∠QNR = 180°; triangle QNR mein r₁ + r₂ + ∠QNR = 180°. Isliye:A ray PQ enters a triangular glass prism ABC at face AB (angle of incidence i, angle of refraction r₁). Inside, it reaches face AC at angle r₂ (going from glass to air), and comes out at the angle of emergence e. The angle between the outgoing ray RS and the original direction PQ is the angle of deviation δ (how much the ray has turned). In the four-sided figure AQNR (N is where the two normals meet), two angles are right angles, so ∠A + ∠QNR = 180°. In triangle QNR, r₁ + r₂ + ∠QNR = 180°. Comparing the two:
Plot δ against i and you get a U-shaped curve. Any δ (except the minimum) occurs for two values of i — i and e simply swap, because the light path can be reversed. At the bottom of the curve, the minimum deviation Dm, i = e and r₁ = r₂: the ray inside the prism runs parallel to the base. Then 2r = A, i.e. r = A/2, and Dm = 2i − A, i.e. i = (A + Dm)/2. Snell’s law at the first face gives:δ को i के विरुद्ध आलेखित करें तो U-आकार का वक्र मिलता है। कोई भी δ (न्यूनतम को छोड़कर) i के दो मानों पर मिलता है — i और e आपस में बदल जाते हैं, क्योंकि प्रकाश पथ उलटा जा सकता है। वक्र के निम्नतम बिंदु, अल्पतम विचलन Dm, पर i = e और r₁ = r₂: प्रिज़्म के अंदर किरण आधार के समांतर चलती है। तब 2r = A, यानी r = A/2, और Dm = 2i − A, यानी i = (A + Dm)/2। पहले फलक पर स्नेल नियम से:δ ko i ke against plot kijiye to U-shape ka curve milta hai. Koi bhi δ (minimum ko chhodkar) i ki do values par milta hai — i aur e aapas mein badal jaate hain, kyunki light path ulta ja sakta hai. Curve ke sabse neeche wale point, minimum deviation Dm, par i = e aur r₁ = r₂: prism ke andar ray base ke parallel chalti hai. Tab 2r = A, yaani r = A/2, aur Dm = 2i − A, yaani i = (A + Dm)/2. Pehle face par Snell’s law se:If you plot δ against i, you get a U-shaped curve. Every value of δ (except the lowest one) happens for two values of i — i and e just swap places, because the path of light can be reversed. At the bottom of the curve is the minimum deviation Dm. Here i = e and r₁ = r₂, and the ray inside the prism goes parallel to the base. Then 2r = A, so r = A/2. Also Dm = 2i − A, so i = (A + Dm)/2. Using Snell’s law at the first face gives:
For a thin prism (small A), Dm is also small, and sin x ≈ x gives n₂₁ ≈ (A + Dm)/A, so:पतले प्रिज़्म (छोटा A) के लिए Dm भी छोटा होता है, और sin x ≈ x से n₂₁ ≈ (A + Dm)/A, अतः:Thin prism (chhota A) ke liye Dm bhi chhota hota hai, aur sin x ≈ x se n₂₁ ≈ (A + Dm)/A, isliye:For a thin prism (A is small), Dm is also small. Using sin x ≈ x for small angles, n₂₁ ≈ (A + Dm)/A. So:
Change the angle of incidence; the ray is traced with Snell’s law at both faces. Watch δ on the i–δ graph and find the minimum, where the ray inside runs parallel to the base.आपतन कोण बदलिए; किरण दोनों फलकों पर स्नेल नियम से खींची जाती है। i–δ ग्राफ़ पर δ देखिए और न्यूनतम ढूँढिए, जहाँ अंदर की किरण आधार के समांतर चलती है।Angle of incidence badaliye; ray dono faces par Snell’s law se kheenchi jaati hai. i–δ graph par δ dekhiye aur minimum dhoondhiye, jahan andar ki ray base ke parallel chalti hai.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
9.7Optical Instrumentsप्रकाशिक यंत्रOptical Instruments
Periscopes, kaleidoscopes, binoculars, telescopes and microscopes all use the reflecting and refracting properties of mirrors, lenses and prisms. Our eye is the most important optical device of all (studied in Class X). Here we study the microscope and the telescope.पेरिस्कोप, कैलिडोस्कोप, बाइनोकुलर, दूरदर्शक और सूक्ष्मदर्शी सभी दर्पणों, लेंसों और प्रिज़्मों के परावर्तक और अपवर्तक गुणों का उपयोग करते हैं। हमारी आँख सबसे महत्वपूर्ण प्रकाशिक युक्ति है (कक्षा 10 में पढ़ी)। यहाँ हम सूक्ष्मदर्शी और दूरदर्शक पढ़ते हैं।Periscope, kaleidoscope, binoculars, telescope aur microscope sab mirrors, lenses aur prisms ke reflecting aur refracting properties use karte hain. Hamari aankh sabse important optical device hai (Class X mein padhi). Yahan hum microscope aur telescope padhte hain.Periscopes, kaleidoscopes, binoculars, telescopes and microscopes all use the reflecting and refracting properties of mirrors, lenses and prisms. Our eye is the most important optical device of all (you studied it in Class X). Here we study the microscope and the telescope.
9.7.1The microscopeसूक्ष्मदर्शीMicroscope
A simple microscope (magnifier) is a converging lens of small focal length held near the object — at one focal length or less — with the eye close to the lens on the other side. It gives an erect, magnified, virtual image at a comfortable distance (25 cm or more). Object at f → image at infinity; object slightly inside f → image closer than infinity. The image at the near point (D ≈ 25 cm) is closest for comfortable viewing but strains the eye; an image at infinity suits the relaxed eye.सरल सूक्ष्मदर्शी (आवर्धक लेंस) कम फोकस दूरी का अभिसारी लेंस है, जिसे वस्तु के पास — एक फोकस दूरी या उससे कम पर — रखते हैं और आँख दूसरी ओर लेंस के पास रहती है। यह आरामदायक दूरी (25 cm या अधिक) पर सीधा, आवर्धित, आभासी प्रतिबिंब देता है। वस्तु f पर → प्रतिबिंब अनंत पर; वस्तु f से थोड़ा अंदर → प्रतिबिंब अनंत से पास। निकट बिंदु (D ≈ 25 cm) पर प्रतिबिंब सबसे पास से आराम से देखने लायक है पर आँख पर ज़ोर डालता है; अनंत पर प्रतिबिंब शिथिल आँख के लिए उपयुक्त है।Simple microscope (magnifier) chhoti focal length ka converging lens hai, jise object ke paas — ek focal length ya usse kam par — rakhte hain aur aankh doosri taraf lens ke paas rehti hai. Ye aaramdayak doori (25 cm ya zyada) par seedha, magnified, virtual image deta hai. Object f par → image infinity par; object f se thoda andar → image infinity se paas. Near point (D ≈ 25 cm) par image sabse paas se aaram se dekhne layak hai par aankh par zor daalti hai; infinity par image relaxed aankh ke liye theek hai.A simple microscope (a magnifying glass) is a converging lens with a small focal length. It is held near the object — at one focal length or closer — and the eye is kept close to the lens on the other side. It gives an erect (upright), magnified, virtual image at a comfortable distance (25 cm or more). If the object is at f, the image is at infinity. If the object is slightly inside f, the image is closer than infinity. An image at the near point (D ≈ 25 cm) is the closest you can see comfortably, but it tires the eye. An image at infinity is best for a relaxed eye.
Image at the near point: m = v/u = v(1/v − 1/f) = 1 − v/f, and v = −D, so m = 1 + D/f. With D = 25 cm, a magnification of 6 needs f = 5 cm. Image at infinity: the object (height h) seen by the naked eye at D subtends θo ≈ h/D; with the lens and the object at f, the image subtends θi ≈ h/f, so the angular magnification is m = θi/θo = D/f — one less than before, but more comfortable, and the difference is small.निकट बिंदु पर प्रतिबिंब: m = v/u = v(1/v − 1/f) = 1 − v/f, और v = −D, अतः m = 1 + D/f। D = 25 cm के साथ 6 आवर्धन के लिए f = 5 cm चाहिए। अनंत पर प्रतिबिंब: नंगी आँख से D पर रखी वस्तु (ऊँचाई h) कोण θo ≈ h/D बनाती है; लेंस के साथ वस्तु f पर हो तो प्रतिबिंब θi ≈ h/f बनाता है, अतः कोणीय आवर्धन m = θi/θo = D/f — पहले से एक कम, पर अधिक आरामदायक, और अंतर छोटा है।Near point par image: m = v/u = v(1/v − 1/f) = 1 − v/f, aur v = −D, isliye m = 1 + D/f. D = 25 cm ke saath 6 magnification ke liye f = 5 cm chahiye. Infinity par image: nangi aankh se D par rakha object (height h) angle θo ≈ h/D banata hai; lens ke saath object f par ho to image θi ≈ h/f banati hai, isliye angular magnification m = θi/θo = D/f — pehle se ek kam, par zyada aaramdayak, aur farak chhota hai.Image at the near point: m = v/u = v(1/v − 1/f) = 1 − v/f. Since v = −D, m = 1 + D/f. With D = 25 cm, to get a magnification of 6 you need f = 5 cm. Image at infinity: without the lens, an object of height h at distance D makes an angle θo ≈ h/D at the eye. With the lens and the object at f, the image makes an angle θi ≈ h/f. So the angular magnification is m = θi/θo = D/f. This is one less than before, but it is more comfortable, and the difference is small.
For larger magnification we use a compound microscope: two lenses, one compounding the effect of the other. The objective (nearest the object) forms a real, inverted, magnified image; this image lies at or just inside the focal point of the eyepiece, which acts as a simple magnifier and forms the final virtual, enlarged image — inverted with respect to the object. The objective’s magnification is mo = h′/h = L/fo, where the tube length L is the distance between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of the eyepiece. The eyepiece gives me = 1 + D/fe (image at D) or D/fe (image at ∞). Total m = mo me:अधिक आवर्धन के लिए संयुक्त सूक्ष्मदर्शी प्रयोग होता है: दो लेंस, एक दूसरे के प्रभाव को बढ़ाता है। अभिदृश्यक (वस्तु के निकटतम) वास्तविक, उलटा, आवर्धित प्रतिबिंब बनाता है; यह प्रतिबिंब नेत्रिका के फोकस पर या थोड़ा अंदर होता है, जो सरल आवर्धक की तरह अंतिम आभासी, बड़ा प्रतिबिंब बनाती है — वस्तु के सापेक्ष उलटा। अभिदृश्यक का आवर्धन mo = h′/h = L/fo, जहाँ नली की लंबाई L अभिदृश्यक के द्वितीय फोकस बिंदु और नेत्रिका के प्रथम फोकस बिंदु के बीच की दूरी है। नेत्रिका me = 1 + D/fe (प्रतिबिंब D पर) या D/fe (प्रतिबिंब ∞ पर) देती है। कुल m = mo me:Zyada magnification ke liye compound microscope use hota hai: do lenses, ek doosre ka effect badhata hai. Objective (object ke sabse paas) real, inverted, magnified image banata hai; ye image eyepiece ke focal point par ya thoda andar hoti hai, jo simple magnifier ki tarah final virtual, badi image banati hai — object ke respect mein ulti. Objective ka magnification mo = h′/h = L/fo, jahan tube length L objective ke second focal point aur eyepiece ke first focal point ke beech ki doori hai. Eyepiece me = 1 + D/fe (image D par) ya D/fe (image ∞ par) deti hai. Total m = mo me:To get more magnification we use a compound microscope. It has two lenses, and each adds to the effect of the other. The objective (the lens nearest the object) makes a real, inverted, magnified image. This image falls at, or just inside, the focal point of the eyepiece. The eyepiece works like a simple magnifier and makes the final virtual, enlarged image, which is inverted compared to the object. The objective’s magnification is mo = h′/h = L/fo. Here the tube length L is the distance between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of the eyepiece. The eyepiece gives me = 1 + D/fe (image at D) or D/fe (image at ∞). The total magnification is m = mo me:
In practice focal lengths much below 1 cm are hard to make, and large lenses are needed for a large L. Illumination also matters, and modern microscopes use multi-component lenses for both objective and eyepiece to reduce aberrations (defects).व्यवहार में 1 cm से बहुत कम फोकस दूरी बनाना कठिन है, और बड़ी L के लिए बड़े लेंस चाहिए। प्रदीप्ति भी महत्वपूर्ण है, और आधुनिक सूक्ष्मदर्शी विपथन (दोष) घटाने के लिए अभिदृश्यक और नेत्रिका दोनों में बहु-घटक लेंस प्रयोग करते हैं।Practically 1 cm se bahut kam focal length banana mushkil hai, aur badi L ke liye bade lenses chahiye. Illumination bhi zaroori hai, aur modern microscopes aberrations (defects) kam karne ke liye objective aur eyepiece dono mein multi-component lenses use karte hain.In practice, it is hard to make lenses with focal lengths much smaller than 1 cm, and a large L needs large lenses. Lighting (illumination) also matters. Modern microscopes use lenses made of several parts, for both the objective and the eyepiece, to reduce aberrations (image defects).
9.7.2Telescopeदूरदर्शकTelescope
A telescope gives angular magnification of distant objects. It also has an objective and an eyepiece, but here the objective has a large focal length and a much larger aperture. Light from a distant object forms a real image at the objective’s second focal point; the eyepiece magnifies it, giving a final inverted image. The magnifying power is the ratio of the angle β subtended at the eye by the final image to the angle α subtended by the object: m = β/α ≈ (h/fe)/(h/fo) = fo/fe. The tube length is fo + fe. Terrestrial telescopes add a pair of inverting lenses to make the image erect.दूरदर्शक दूर की वस्तुओं का कोणीय आवर्धन देता है। इसमें भी अभिदृश्यक और नेत्रिका होते हैं, पर यहाँ अभिदृश्यक की फोकस दूरी बड़ी और द्वारक बहुत बड़ा होता है। दूर की वस्तु से प्रकाश अभिदृश्यक के द्वितीय फोकस बिंदु पर वास्तविक प्रतिबिंब बनाता है; नेत्रिका उसे आवर्धित करके अंतिम उलटा प्रतिबिंब देती है। आवर्धन क्षमता = अंतिम प्रतिबिंब द्वारा आँख पर बना कोण β / वस्तु द्वारा बना कोण α: m = β/α ≈ (h/fe)/(h/fo) = fo/fe। नली की लंबाई fo + fe। भू-दूरदर्शक में प्रतिबिंब सीधा करने के लिए एक जोड़ी उत्क्रमक लेंस और होते हैं।Telescope door ki cheezon ka angular magnification deta hai. Ismein bhi objective aur eyepiece hote hain, par yahan objective ki focal length badi aur aperture bahut bada hota hai. Door ke object se light objective ke second focal point par real image banati hai; eyepiece use magnify karke final ulti image deti hai. Magnifying power = final image dwara aankh par bana angle β / object dwara bana angle α: m = β/α ≈ (h/fe)/(h/fo) = fo/fe. Tube length fo + fe. Terrestrial telescopes mein image seedhi karne ke liye ek pair inverting lenses aur hote hain.A telescope gives angular magnification of far-away objects (makes them look bigger). It also has an objective and an eyepiece. But here the objective has a long focal length and a much bigger aperture (opening). Light from a distant object forms a real image at the objective’s second focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this image, so the final image is inverted. The magnifying power is the angle β made at the eye by the final image, divided by the angle α made by the object: m = β/α ≈ (h/fe)/(h/fo) = fo/fe. The length of the tube is fo + fe. Terrestrial telescopes (for seeing things on Earth) add a pair of inverting lenses to make the image upright.
For an astronomical telescope what matters most is its light-gathering power (depends on the objective’s area — a bigger objective shows fainter objects) and its resolving power (the ability to see two nearly-overlapping objects as separate — also better with a larger objective diameter). The largest lens objective in use is 40 inch (~1.02 m) across, at the Yerkes Observatory, USA. Such big lenses are heavy, hard to support by their edges, and hard to make free of chromatic aberration and distortion.खगोलीय दूरदर्शक में सबसे महत्वपूर्ण हैं उसकी प्रकाश संग्रहण क्षमता (अभिदृश्यक के क्षेत्रफल पर निर्भर — बड़ा अभिदृश्यक धुँधली वस्तुएँ भी दिखाता है) और विभेदन क्षमता (लगभग एक ही दिशा की दो वस्तुओं को अलग देखने की क्षमता — यह भी बड़े व्यास से बेहतर)। सबसे बड़ा प्रयुक्त लेंस अभिदृश्यक 40 इंच (~1.02 m) का है, यर्कीज़ वेधशाला, USA में। ऐसे बड़े लेंस भारी होते हैं, किनारों से सहारा देना कठिन होता है, और उन्हें वर्ण विपथन तथा विकृति से मुक्त बनाना कठिन है।Astronomical telescope mein sabse important hain uski light-gathering power (objective ke area par depend — bada objective dhundhli cheezein bhi dikhata hai) aur resolving power (lagbhag ek hi direction ki do cheezon ko alag dekhne ki ability — ye bhi bade diameter se behtar). Sabse bada use mein lens objective 40 inch (~1.02 m) ka hai, Yerkes Observatory, USA mein. Aise bade lenses bhaari hote hain, edges se sahara dena mushkil hota hai, aur unhein chromatic aberration aur distortion se free banana mushkil hai.For an astronomical telescope, two things matter most. One is its light-gathering power, which depends on the area of the objective — a bigger objective shows fainter objects. The other is its resolving power, the ability to see two very close objects as separate — this also gets better with a wider objective. The largest lens objective in use is 40 inch (~1.02 m) wide, at the Yerkes Observatory, USA. Such big lenses are very heavy, hard to hold up by their edges, and hard to make free of chromatic aberration (colour fringes) and distortion.
So modern telescopes use a concave mirror as the objective — reflecting telescopes. A mirror has no chromatic aberration, weighs much less than a lens of equal quality, and can be supported over its whole back. But the mirror focuses light inside the tube, where an observer would block light (the 200 inch, ~5.08 m, Mt. Palomar telescope has an observer cage there). The Cassegrain design solves this: a convex secondary mirror sends the light back through a hole in the primary to a focus behind it — a long focal length in a short telescope. India’s largest telescope, at Kavalur, Tamil Nadu, is a 2.34 m Cassegrain reflector of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore. The largest reflectors in the world are the pair of Keck telescopes in Hawaii (10 m mirrors).इसलिए आधुनिक दूरदर्शक अभिदृश्यक के रूप में अवतल दर्पण लेते हैं — परावर्ती दूरदर्शक। दर्पण में वर्ण विपथन नहीं होता, समान गुणवत्ता के लेंस से बहुत हल्का होता है, और पूरी पीठ पर सहारा दिया जा सकता है। पर दर्पण प्रकाश को नली के अंदर फोकस करता है, जहाँ प्रेक्षक प्रकाश रोकेगा (200 इंच, ~5.08 m, माउंट पालोमर दूरदर्शक में वहाँ प्रेक्षक का पिंजरा है)। कैसेग्रेन डिज़ाइन इसका हल है: उत्तल द्वितीयक दर्पण प्रकाश को प्राथमिक दर्पण के छिद्र से वापस उसके पीछे के फोकस पर भेजता है — छोटे दूरदर्शक में बड़ी फोकस दूरी। भारत का सबसे बड़ा दूरदर्शक कवलूर, तमिलनाडु में भारतीय तारा भौतिकी संस्थान, बेंगलुरु का 2.34 m कैसेग्रेन परावर्तक है। विश्व के सबसे बड़े परावर्तक हवाई के दो केक दूरदर्शक हैं (10 m दर्पण)।Isliye modern telescopes objective ke roop mein concave mirror lete hain — reflecting telescopes. Mirror mein chromatic aberration nahi hota, same quality ke lens se bahut halka hota hai, aur poori peeth par sahara diya ja sakta hai. Par mirror light ko tube ke andar focus karta hai, jahan observer light rokega (200 inch, ~5.08 m, Mt. Palomar telescope mein wahan observer ka cage hai). Cassegrain design iska hal hai: convex secondary mirror light ko primary mirror ke hole se wapas uske peeche ke focus par bhejta hai — chhote telescope mein badi focal length. India ka sabse bada telescope Kavalur, Tamil Nadu mein Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore ka 2.34 m Cassegrain reflector hai. Duniya ke sabse bade reflectors Hawaii ke do Keck telescopes hain (10 m mirrors).So modern telescopes use a concave mirror as the objective. These are called reflecting telescopes. A mirror has no chromatic aberration, weighs much less than a lens of the same quality, and can be supported over its whole back. But the mirror focuses the light inside the tube, where an observer would block the light. (The 200 inch, ~5.08 m, Mt. Palomar telescope has a cage for the observer there.) The Cassegrain design solves this problem: a convex secondary mirror sends the light back through a hole in the main (primary) mirror to a focus behind it. This gives a long focal length in a short telescope. India’s largest telescope, at Kavalur, Tamil Nadu, is a 2.34 m Cassegrain reflector of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore. The largest reflecting telescopes in the world are the pair of Keck telescopes in Hawaii (10 m mirrors).
Rotate a real-looking compound microscope and an astronomical telescope. Tap the objective, eyepiece, tube, focus knob or stage to see what each does; the light path is shown inside.असली जैसे संयुक्त सूक्ष्मदर्शी और खगोलीय दूरदर्शक को घुमाइए। अभिदृश्यक, नेत्रिका, नली, फोकस घुंडी या मंच पर टैप करके उसका कार्य देखिए; अंदर प्रकाश का पथ दिखता है।Asli jaise compound microscope aur astronomical telescope ko ghumaiye. Objective, eyepiece, tube, focus knob ya stage par tap karke uska kaam dekhiye; andar light ka path dikhta hai.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
★Formula sheetसूत्र सूचीFormula sheet
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
★Quick revisionझटपट दोहरावQuick revision
- Cartesian sign convention: distances from the pole/optical centre; along the incident light +, against −; heights up +, down −. Real object: u always negative.कार्तीय चिह्न परिपाटी: दूरियाँ ध्रुव/प्रकाशिक केंद्र से; आपतित प्रकाश की दिशा में +, विपरीत −; ऊँचाई ऊपर +, नीचे −। वास्तविक वस्तु: u सदा ऋणात्मक।Cartesian sign convention: distances pole/optical centre se; incident light ki direction mein +, ulti −; height upar +, neeche −. Real object: u hamesha negative.Cartesian sign convention: measure all distances from the pole/optical centre. Distances in the direction of the incoming light are +, against it are −. Heights upward are +, downward are −. For a real object, u is always negative.
- Mirror: f = R/2, 1/v + 1/u = 1/f, m = −v/u. Concave mirror can give real or virtual images; convex mirror always virtual, erect, diminished.दर्पण: f = R/2, 1/v + 1/u = 1/f, m = −v/u। अवतल दर्पण वास्तविक या आभासी प्रतिबिंब दे सकता है; उत्तल दर्पण सदा आभासी, सीधा, छोटा।Mirror: f = R/2, 1/v + 1/u = 1/f, m = −v/u. Concave mirror real ya virtual image de sakta hai; convex mirror hamesha virtual, seedha, chhota.Mirror: f = R/2, 1/v + 1/u = 1/f, m = −v/u. A concave mirror can give real or virtual images. A convex mirror always gives virtual, erect, smaller images.
- Snell: sin i/sin r = n₂₁. Denser medium → bends towards the normal. Slab: emergent ray parallel, laterally shifted. Apparent depth = real depth/n.स्नेल: sin i/sin r = n₂₁। सघन माध्यम → अभिलंब की ओर मुड़ना। पट्टिका: निर्गत किरण समांतर, पार्श्विक विस्थापित। आभासी गहराई = वास्तविक गहराई/n।Snell: sin i/sin r = n₂₁. Denser medium → normal ki taraf mudna. Slab: emergent ray parallel, laterally shifted. Apparent depth = real depth/n.Snell’s law: sin i/sin r = n₂₁. Going into a denser medium, light bends towards the normal. Glass slab: the outgoing ray is parallel to the incoming ray but shifted sideways. Apparent depth = real depth/n.
- TIR needs denser → rarer AND i > ic, sin ic = 1/n. Water 48.75°, crown glass 41.14°, diamond 24.41°. Uses: 90°/180°/inverting prisms, optical fibres (core n > cladding n).पूर्ण आंतरिक परावर्तन के लिए सघन → विरल और i > ic, sin ic = 1/n। जल 48.75°, क्राउन काँच 41.14°, हीरा 24.41°। उपयोग: 90°/180°/उलटने वाले प्रिज़्म, प्रकाशिक तंतु (क्रोड n > आवरण n)।TIR ke liye denser → rarer AUR i > ic, sin ic = 1/n. Paani 48.75°, crown glass 41.14°, diamond 24.41°. Uses: 90°/180°/inverting prisms, optical fibres (core n > cladding n).TIR needs two things: light going from denser to rarer, AND i > ic, where sin ic = 1/n. Critical angles: water 48.75°, crown glass 41.14°, diamond 24.41°. Uses: prisms that turn light by 90° or 180° or invert images, and optical fibres (core n > cladding n).
- Spherical surface: n₂/v − n₁/u = (n₂ − n₁)/R. Lens maker: 1/f = (n₂₁ − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂). Lens: 1/v − 1/u = 1/f, m = v/u. A lens in a liquid of the same n disappears (f → ∞).गोलीय पृष्ठ: n₂/v − n₁/u = (n₂ − n₁)/R। लेंस मेकर: 1/f = (n₂₁ − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂)। लेंस: 1/v − 1/u = 1/f, m = v/u। समान n वाले द्रव में लेंस अदृश्य (f → ∞)।Spherical surface: n₂/v − n₁/u = (n₂ − n₁)/R. Lens maker: 1/f = (n₂₁ − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂). Lens: 1/v − 1/u = 1/f, m = v/u. Same n wale liquid mein lens gaayab (f → ∞).Spherical surface: n₂/v − n₁/u = (n₂ − n₁)/R. Lens maker: 1/f = (n₂₁ − 1)(1/R₁ − 1/R₂). Lens: 1/v − 1/u = 1/f, m = v/u. A lens in a liquid with the same n disappears (f → ∞).
- Power P = 1/f (dioptre); convex +, concave −. Lenses in contact: powers add, magnifications multiply.क्षमता P = 1/f (डाइऑप्टर); उत्तल +, अवतल −। संपर्क में लेंस: क्षमताएँ जुड़ती हैं, आवर्धन गुणा होते हैं।Power P = 1/f (dioptre); convex +, concave −. Contact mein lenses: powers judti hain, magnifications multiply hote hain.Power P = 1/f (unit: dioptre). Convex is +, concave is −. For lenses in contact, the powers add, and the magnifications multiply.
- Prism: r₁ + r₂ = A, δ = i + e − A; minimum deviation when i = e, ray inside parallel to the base; n = sin[(A + Dm)/2]/sin(A/2); thin prism Dm = (n − 1)A.प्रिज़्म: r₁ + r₂ = A, δ = i + e − A; अल्पतम विचलन तब जब i = e, अंदर की किरण आधार के समांतर; n = sin[(A + Dm)/2]/sin(A/2); पतला प्रिज़्म Dm = (n − 1)A।Prism: r₁ + r₂ = A, δ = i + e − A; minimum deviation jab i = e, andar ki ray base ke parallel; n = sin[(A + Dm)/2]/sin(A/2); thin prism Dm = (n − 1)A.Prism: r₁ + r₂ = A and δ = i + e − A. Minimum deviation happens when i = e, and the ray inside is parallel to the base. n = sin[(A + Dm)/2]/sin(A/2). For a thin prism, Dm = (n − 1)A.
- Simple microscope m = 1 + D/f (image at D) or D/f (at ∞). Compound microscope m = (L/fo)(D/fe), small fo and fe. Telescope m = fo/fe, length fo + fe; reflecting (Cassegrain) telescopes avoid chromatic aberration.सरल सूक्ष्मदर्शी m = 1 + D/f (प्रतिबिंब D पर) या D/f (∞ पर)। संयुक्त सूक्ष्मदर्शी m = (L/fo)(D/fe), fo और fe छोटे। दूरदर्शक m = fo/fe, लंबाई fo + fe; परावर्ती (कैसेग्रेन) दूरदर्शक में वर्ण विपथन नहीं।Simple microscope m = 1 + D/f (image D par) ya D/f (∞ par). Compound microscope m = (L/fo)(D/fe), fo aur fe chhote. Telescope m = fo/fe, length fo + fe; reflecting (Cassegrain) telescopes mein chromatic aberration nahi.Simple microscope: m = 1 + D/f (image at D) or D/f (image at ∞). Compound microscope: m = (L/fo)(D/fe), with small fo and fe. Telescope: m = fo/fe, length = fo + fe. Reflecting (Cassegrain) telescopes avoid chromatic aberration.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
★Quick check — test yourselfख़ुद को परखेंQuick check — khud ko test kijiye
These are Simple Learning Hub’s own study notes written to follow the current (rationalised) NCERT Class 12 Physics textbook section by section; read them with the official NCERT chapter. Diagrams and simulations are original SLH work based on the NCERT figures they name. Report a mistake