Ch 15Body Fluids and Circulationशरीर द्रव तथा परिसंचरणBody Fluids and Circulation
Blood (plasma, formed elements, ABO and Rh groups, coagulation), lymph, circulatory pathways, the human heart, cardiac cycle, ECG, double circulation, regulation and circulatory disorders — with tappable diagrams.रुधिर (प्लाज़्मा, संगठित पदार्थ, ABO और Rh समूह, स्कंदन), लसीका, परिसंचरण पथ, मानव हृदय, हृद चक्र, ECG, दोहरा परिसंचरण, नियमन और परिसंचरण विकार — टैप करने वाले चित्रों के साथ।Blood (plasma, cells, ABO-Rh, clotting), lymph, circulation types, human heart, cardiac cycle, ECG, double circulation, regulation aur disorders — tap wale diagrams ke saath.
Didn’t understand a paragraph? Tap it (or its Explain button) → Hindi / Hinglish / Simple English.कोई पैराग्राफ़ समझ नहीं आया? उस पर (या समझें बटन पर) टैप करें → अंग्रेज़ी / हिंग्लिश।Koi paragraph samajh nahi aaya? Us par (ya Samjho button par) tap kijiye → Hindi / English.
Diagrams in this chapterइस अध्याय के डायग्रामIs chapter ke diagrams
▶ Animate: one cardiac cycle step by step▶ एनिमेट: एक हृद चक्र चरण-दर-चरण▶ Animate: ek cardiac cycle step by stepAnimated · 3D
▶ Animate: build an ECG: P, QRS, T▶ एनिमेट: ECG बनाइए: P, QRS, T▶ Animate: ECG banaiye: P, QRS, TAnimated · 3D
Formed elements of bloodरुधिर के संगठित पदार्थFormed elements of bloodFig 15.1
Section of a human heartमानव हृदय की काटSection of a human heartFig 15.2
Standard ECGमानक ECGStandard ECGFig 15.3
Double circulation in humansमनुष्य में दोहरा परिसंचरणDouble circulation in humansFig 15.4In this chapter (NCERT sections)इस अध्याय में (NCERT खंड)Is chapter mein (NCERT sections)
- 15.1BloodरुधिरBlood
- 15.2Lymph (tissue fluid)लसीका (ऊतक द्रव)Lymph
- 15.3Circulatory pathwaysपरिसंचरण पथCirculation ke types
- 15.4Double circulationदोहरा परिसंचरणDouble circulation
- 15.5Regulation of cardiac activityहृद क्रिया का नियमनHeart ka regulation
- 15.6Disorders of circulatory systemपरिसंचरण तंत्र के विकारCirculatory disorders
- ★Yaad rakho — quick revisionयाद रखो — झटपट दोहरावYaad rakho — quick revision
- ⚠Common mistakesआम गलतियाँCommon mistakes
- ✎NCERT questions — short answersNCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तरNCERT questions — short answers
- 🎯Quizक्विज़Quiz
Living cells need nutrients and O₂, and their wastes must be removed continuously. Simple organisms like sponges and coelenterates circulate water from their surroundings through body cavities. More complex organisms use special body fluids — blood, the most common, and lymph, which also helps in transport.जीवित कोशिकाओं को पोषक और O₂ चाहिए, और अपशिष्ट लगातार हटाने होते। स्पंज और सीलेंटरेट जैसे सरल जीव आसपास का जल शरीर गुहाओं से घुमाते। जटिल जीव विशेष शरीर द्रव — सबसे सामान्य रुधिर, और परिवहन में सहायक लसीका — उपयोग करते।Sponges/coelenterates — paani ghumaate. Complex jeev — blood aur lymph.Living cells need a steady supply of nutrients and O₂, and their waste must be removed all the time. Simple animals like sponges and coelenterates move water from their surroundings through their body spaces. More complex animals use special body fluids. Blood is the most common one. Lymph also helps to carry substances.
15.1BloodरुधिरBlood
Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements.रुधिर एक विशेष संयोजी ऊतक है जिसमें तरल आधात्री प्लाज़्मा और संगठित पदार्थ होते।Blood = special connective tissue: plasma + formed elements.Blood is a special connective tissue. It has a liquid part called plasma and solid parts called formed elements (cells and cell pieces).
15.1.1Plasmaप्लाज़्माPlasma
A straw-coloured, viscous fluid forming nearly 55% of blood; 90–92% is water and proteins are 6–8%. Major proteins: fibrinogen (clotting), globulins (defence) and albumins (osmotic balance). Plasma also has small amounts of minerals (Na⁺, Ca⁺⁺, Mg⁺⁺, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻), glucose, amino acids and lipids in transit. Factors for coagulation are present in plasma in inactive form. Plasma without clotting factors is serum.भूसे के रंग का, गाढ़ा तरल, रुधिर का लगभग 55%; 90–92% जल और 6–8% प्रोटीन। मुख्य प्रोटीन: फ़ाइब्रिनोजन (स्कंदन), ग्लोबुलिन (रक्षा) और एल्ब्यूमिन (परासरणी संतुलन)। थोड़े खनिज (Na⁺, Ca⁺⁺, Mg⁺⁺, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻), ग्लूकोज़, अमीनो अम्ल, लिपिड भी। स्कंदन कारक निष्क्रिय रूप में। स्कंदन कारकों रहित प्लाज़्मा सीरम।Plasma 55%; 90–92% paani, 6–8% proteins: fibrinogen (clotting), globulin (defence), albumin (osmotic). Clotting factors ke bina = serum.Plasma is a thick, straw-coloured (pale yellow) liquid. It makes up nearly 55% of blood. Plasma is 90–92% water, and 6–8% is proteins. The main proteins are: fibrinogen (helps blood clot), globulins (help defend the body) and albumins (keep the osmotic balance, that is, the water balance). Plasma also has small amounts of minerals (Na⁺, Ca⁺⁺, Mg⁺⁺, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻), and glucose, amino acids and lipids that are being carried around. The factors needed for clotting are in plasma in an inactive form. Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.
15.1.2Formed elementsसंगठित पदार्थFormed elements
Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets together form about 45% of blood. RBCs are the most abundant: 5–5.5 million mm⁻³; formed in red bone marrow in adults; no nucleus in most mammals; biconcave; contain the red, iron-containing protein haemoglobin (12–16 g per 100 mL in a healthy person), which transports respiratory gases. RBCs live about 120 days and are destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs). Leucocytes (WBCs) are colourless (no haemoglobin), nucleated, fewer (6000–8000 mm⁻³) and generally short-lived. Granulocytes are neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Neutrophils (most abundant, 60–65%) and monocytes (6–8%, an agranulocyte) are phagocytic; basophils (least, 0.5–1%) secrete histamine, serotonin, heparin and are involved in inflammation; eosinophils (2–3%) resist infections and are associated with allergic reactions. Agranulocytes: lymphocytes (20–25%), B and T types, responsible for immune responses; and monocytes. Platelets (thrombocytes) are cell fragments from megakaryocytes in bone marrow; 1,50,000–3,50,000 mm⁻³; they release substances for clotting — a fall in number causes clotting disorders and excessive blood loss. RBC, neutrophil, platelets, 3D blood cells3D.RBC, WBC और पट्टिकाणु मिलकर रुधिर का लगभग 45%। RBC सर्वाधिक: 5–5.5 मिलियन mm⁻³; वयस्कों में लाल अस्थि मज्जा में; अधिकांश स्तनधारियों में केंद्रक नहीं; उभयावतल; लाल, लौहयुक्त प्रोटीन हीमोग्लोबिन (स्वस्थ में 12–16 g प्रति 100 mL), जो श्वसन गैसों का परिवहन करता। RBC लगभग 120 दिन जीवित, प्लीहा (RBC का कब्रिस्तान) में नष्ट। WBC रंगहीन (हीमोग्लोबिन नहीं), केंद्रकयुक्त, कम (6000–8000 mm⁻³), प्रायः अल्पजीवी। कणिकामय = न्यूट्रोफ़िल, इओसिनोफ़िल और बेसोफ़िल। न्यूट्रोफ़िल (सर्वाधिक, 60–65%) और मोनोसाइट (6–8%, कणिकाविहीन) भक्षी; बेसोफ़िल (न्यूनतम, 0.5–1%) हिस्टामिन, सेरोटोनिन, हेपैरिन स्रावित कर शोथ में; इओसिनोफ़िल (2–3%) संक्रमण प्रतिरोध और एलर्जी। कणिकाविहीन: लिंफ़ोसाइट (20–25%), B और T, प्रतिरक्षा हेतु; और मोनोसाइट। पट्टिकाणु (थ्रोम्बोसाइट) अस्थि मज्जा के मेगाकैरियोसाइट के खंड; 1,50,000–3,50,000 mm⁻³; स्कंदन हेतु पदार्थ छोड़ते — कमी से स्कंदन विकार व अधिक रक्तस्राव। RBC, न्यूट्रोफ़िल, पट्टिकाणु, 3D रक्त कोशिकाएँ3D।Formed elements 45%. RBC 5–5.5 million, bone marrow, nucleus nahi, biconcave, Hb 12–16 g/100 mL, 120 din, spleen = graveyard. WBC 6000–8000: neutrophil 60–65% + monocyte 6–8% (phagocytic), basophil 0.5–1% (histamine, heparin), eosinophil 2–3% (allergy), lymphocyte 20–25% (B, T). Platelets 1.5–3.5 lakh, megakaryocyte, clotting. RBC, neutrophil, platelets, 3D blood cells3D.The formed elements — erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets — make up about 45% of blood. RBCs (erythrocytes) are the most common: 5–5.5 million mm⁻³ (per cubic millimetre of blood). In adults they are made in the red bone marrow. Most mammals' RBCs have no nucleus. They are biconcave (pressed in on both sides). They contain haemoglobin, a red protein with iron, which carries the breathing gases. A healthy person has 12–16 g of haemoglobin per 100 mL of blood. RBCs live for about 120 days. They are destroyed in the spleen, which is called the graveyard of RBCs. Leucocytes (WBCs) have no colour (no haemoglobin) and have a nucleus. They are fewer in number (6000–8000 mm⁻³) and usually live for a short time. Granulocytes are neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils. Neutrophils are the most common WBCs (60–65%). Neutrophils and monocytes (6–8%) are phagocytic (they swallow and destroy germs). Basophils are the fewest (0.5–1%). They release histamine, serotonin and heparin and take part in inflammation (swelling). Eosinophils (2–3%) fight infections and are linked with allergic reactions. Agranulocytes are lymphocytes (20–25%) and monocytes. Lymphocytes are of two types, B and T, and they are responsible for immune responses (the body's defence). Platelets (thrombocytes) are pieces of cells made from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. There are 1,50,000–3,50,000 mm⁻³. They release substances needed for blood clotting. If their number falls, clotting problems happen and a lot of blood can be lost. 3D blood cells3D. 👉 RBC 👉 neutrophil
15.1.3Blood groupsरुधिर वर्गBlood groups
ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens A and B on RBCs; the plasma has natural antibodies against them. Group O can be donated to people of any group — universal donor; AB can receive from all — universal recipient. Rh grouping: the Rh antigen (similar to that of Rhesus monkeys) is present on the RBCs of nearly 80% of humans (Rh+ve); those without it are Rh−ve. An Rh−ve person exposed to Rh+ve blood forms antibodies, so Rh must also be matched. In pregnancy, an Rh−ve mother with an Rh+ve foetus: the first pregnancy is safe (bloods separated by the placenta), but at the first delivery some foetal blood may enter the mother, who then makes anti-Rh antibodies; in later pregnancies these can leak into the foetal blood and destroy foetal RBCs — fatal erythroblastosis foetalis (severe anaemia and jaundice). It is avoided by giving anti-Rh antibodies to the mother immediately after the first delivery.ABO वर्गीकरण RBC पर दो सतह प्रतिजनों A और B की उपस्थिति/अनुपस्थिति पर; प्लाज़्मा में इनके विरुद्ध प्राकृतिक प्रतिरक्षी। O समूह किसी को भी दिया जा सकता — सर्वदाता; AB सबसे ले सकता — सर्वग्राही। Rh वर्गीकरण: Rh प्रतिजन (रीसस बंदर जैसा) लगभग 80% मनुष्यों के RBC पर (Rh+ve); जिनमें नहीं वे Rh−ve। Rh−ve व्यक्ति Rh+ve रक्त के संपर्क में प्रतिरक्षी बनाता, अतः Rh भी मिलाना आवश्यक। गर्भावस्था में Rh−ve माता और Rh+ve भ्रूण: पहली गर्भावस्था सुरक्षित (अपरा से रक्त अलग), पर पहले प्रसव में भ्रूण का कुछ रक्त माता में जाकर Rh-प्रतिरक्षी बनवा सकता; बाद की गर्भावस्थाओं में ये भ्रूण रक्त में जाकर उसकी RBC नष्ट करते — घातक गर्भ रक्ताणु-कोरकता (एरिथ्रोब्लास्टोसिस फ़ीटैलिस) (गंभीर रक्ताल्पता, पीलिया)। पहले प्रसव के तुरंत बाद माता को Rh-प्रतिरक्षी देकर बचाव।ABO: antigens A, B; O = universal donor, AB = universal recipient. Rh: 80% Rh+ve. Rh−ve maa + Rh+ve bachcha → doosri pregnancy mein erythroblastosis foetalis; pehli delivery ke baad maa ko anti-Rh antibodies.ABO blood grouping depends on whether two surface antigens, A and B, are present or absent on RBCs. The plasma naturally has antibodies against the antigens it does not have. Group O blood can be given to people of any group, so O is the universal donor. Group AB can receive blood from all groups, so AB is the universal recipient. Rh grouping: the Rh antigen (like the one in Rhesus monkeys) is on the RBCs of nearly 80% of humans; they are Rh+ve (Rh positive). People without it are Rh−ve. If an Rh−ve person gets Rh+ve blood, their body makes antibodies against it. So Rh must also be matched before giving blood. In pregnancy, a problem can arise when the mother is Rh−ve and the foetus (baby) is Rh+ve. The first pregnancy is safe, because the placenta keeps the two bloods apart. But during the first delivery, some of the baby's blood may enter the mother. The mother then makes anti-Rh antibodies. In later pregnancies, these antibodies can pass into the baby's blood and destroy its RBCs. This can be fatal and is called erythroblastosis foetalis (it causes severe anaemia and jaundice in the baby). It is prevented by giving anti-Rh antibodies to the mother right after the first delivery.
| Blood groupरुधिर वर्गGroup | Antigens on RBCsRBC पर प्रतिजनAntigen | Antibodies in plasmaप्लाज़्मा में प्रतिरक्षीAntibody | Donor’s groupदाता का वर्गDonor |
|---|---|---|---|
| AAA | AAA | anti-Bएंटी-Banti-B | A, OA, OA, O |
| BBB | BBB | anti-Aएंटी-Aanti-A | B, OB, OB, O |
| ABABAB | A, BA, BA, B | nilनहींnil | AB, A, B, OAB, A, B, Osab |
| OOO | nilनहींnil | anti-A, anti-Bएंटी-A, एंटी-Banti-A, B | OOO |
15.1.4Coagulation of bloodरुधिर का स्कंदनBlood clotting
In response to injury blood forms a dark reddish-brown scum — a clot or coagulum — made of a network of threads called fibrins in which dead and damaged formed elements are trapped. Fibrins form from inactive fibrinogen in plasma by the enzyme thrombin; thrombins form from inactive prothrombin with the help of the enzyme complex thrombokinase, formed by a series of linked enzymic reactions (a cascade) involving factors in plasma in inactive state. Injury stimulates platelets to release factors that activate this mechanism; injured tissues also release factors. Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.चोट पर रुधिर गहरा लाल-भूरा थक्का — स्कंद — बनाता, जो फ़ाइब्रिन धागों का जाल है जिसमें मृत व क्षतिग्रस्त संगठित पदार्थ फँसे। फ़ाइब्रिन प्लाज़्मा के निष्क्रिय फ़ाइब्रिनोजन से एंजाइम थ्रोम्बिन द्वारा; थ्रोम्बिन निष्क्रिय प्रोथ्रोम्बिन से एंजाइम सम्मिश्र थ्रोम्बोकाइनेज़ की सहायता से, जो प्लाज़्मा के निष्क्रिय कारकों की एंजाइमी अभिक्रियाओं की शृंखला (सोपानी प्रक्रम) से बनता। चोट पट्टिकाणुओं को ये कारक छोड़ने को प्रेरित करती; क्षतिग्रस्त ऊतक भी कारक छोड़ते। स्कंदन में कैल्शियम आयनों की बहुत महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका।Chot → thrombokinase → prothrombin → thrombin → fibrinogen → fibrin jaal = clot. Platelets factors chhodte; Ca²⁺ zaroori.When we get hurt, blood forms a dark reddish-brown lump called a clot or coagulum. It is a net of threads called fibrins, in which dead and damaged blood cells get trapped. Fibrins are made from inactive fibrinogen in plasma by the enzyme thrombin. Thrombin is made from inactive prothrombin with the help of an enzyme group called thrombokinase. Thrombokinase forms through a chain of linked enzyme reactions (a cascade), using factors that are present in plasma in an inactive form. An injury makes platelets release factors that start this process. Injured tissues also release some factors. Calcium ions play a very important role in clotting.
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15.2Lymph (tissue fluid)लसीका (ऊतक द्रव)Lymph
As blood passes through capillaries, water and small water-soluble substances move out into the spaces between cells, leaving larger proteins and most formed elements in the vessels — this is interstitial (tissue) fluid, with the same mineral distribution as plasma. Exchange of nutrients and gases between blood and cells always occurs through it. A separate lymphatic system collects this fluid and drains it back to the major veins; the fluid in the lymphatic system is lymph — colourless, containing specialised lymphocytes responsible for immune responses. Lymph is an important carrier of nutrients and hormones; fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals of intestinal villi.केशिकाओं से गुजरते रुधिर से जल और छोटे घुलनशील पदार्थ कोशिकाओं के बीच के स्थानों में निकलते, बड़े प्रोटीन और अधिकतर संगठित पदार्थ वाहिकाओं में रहते — यह अंतराली (ऊतक) द्रव, जिसमें प्लाज़्मा जैसा खनिज वितरण। रुधिर व कोशिकाओं के बीच पोषक व गैसों का विनिमय इसी से। अलग लसीका तंत्र इसे एकत्र कर बड़ी शिराओं में लौटाता; लसीका तंत्र का द्रव लसीका — रंगहीन, प्रतिरक्षा हेतु विशेष लिंफ़ोसाइट युक्त। लसीका पोषक व हॉर्मोन का वाहक; आंत्र अंकुरों की लैक्टियल में वसा का अवशोषण लसीका से।Capillaries se paani + chhote padarth bahar = tissue fluid; lymphatic system mein = lymph (rangheen, lymphocytes). Nutrients, hormones; fat absorption (lacteals).As blood passes through capillaries (the tiniest blood vessels), water and small substances that dissolve in water move out into the spaces between cells. The large proteins and most blood cells stay inside the vessels. The fluid that comes out is called interstitial fluid or tissue fluid. It has the same minerals as plasma. Nutrients and gases always pass between blood and cells through this fluid. A separate lymphatic system collects this fluid and drains it back into the big veins. The fluid inside the lymphatic system is called lymph. It has no colour and contains special lymphocytes, which are responsible for immune responses. Lymph carries nutrients and hormones. Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals (lymph vessels) of the villi in the intestine.
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15.3Circulatory pathwaysपरिसंचरण पथCirculation ke types
Two types: open — in arthropods and molluscs, blood pumped by the heart passes through large vessels into open spaces or body cavities called sinuses; closed — in annelids and chordates, blood always circulates through a closed network of vessels; closed is more advantageous as flow can be more precisely regulated. All vertebrates have a muscular chambered heart: fishes — 2-chambered (one atrium, one ventricle); amphibians and reptiles (except crocodiles) — 3-chambered (two atria, one ventricle); crocodiles, birds and mammals — 4-chambered (two atria, two ventricles). In fishes the heart pumps out deoxygenated blood, which is oxygenated by the gills and supplied to the body — single circulation. In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium receives oxygenated blood (gills/lungs/skin) and the right atrium deoxygenated blood, but they mix in the single ventricle — incomplete double circulation. In birds and mammals oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept separate — double circulation.दो प्रकार: खुला — आर्थ्रोपोडा और मोलस्का में, हृदय से पंप रुधिर बड़ी वाहिकाओं से खुले स्थानों या कोटरों (साइनस) में; बंद — ऐनेलिडा और कॉर्डेटा में, रुधिर सदा वाहिकाओं के बंद जाल में; बंद अधिक लाभदायक क्योंकि प्रवाह सटीक नियंत्रित। सभी कशेरुकियों में पेशीय कक्षीय हृदय: मछली — 2 कक्ष (एक अलिंद, एक निलय); उभयचर व सरीसृप (मगरमच्छ छोड़) — 3 कक्ष (दो अलिंद, एक निलय); मगरमच्छ, पक्षी, स्तनधारी — 4 कक्ष। मछली में हृदय विऑक्सीजनित रुधिर पंप करता, जो क्लोम में ऑक्सीजनित होकर शरीर में — एकल परिसंचरण। उभयचर व सरीसृप में बायाँ अलिंद ऑक्सीजनित, दायाँ विऑक्सीजनित रुधिर लेता, पर एक निलय में मिल जाते — अपूर्ण दोहरा परिसंचरण। पक्षी व स्तनधारी में दोनों अलग — दोहरा परिसंचरण।Open (arthropods, molluscs — sinuses) vs closed (annelids, chordates). Heart: fish 2, amphibians/reptiles 3 (crocodile 4), birds/mammals 4. Fish = single; amphibians/reptiles = incomplete double; birds/mammals = double.There are two types of circulation. In the open type (in arthropods and molluscs), the heart pumps blood through large vessels into open spaces or body cavities called sinuses. In the closed type (in annelids and chordates), blood always flows inside a closed network of vessels. The closed type is better because the flow can be controlled more exactly. All vertebrates have a muscular heart with chambers. Fishes have a 2-chambered heart (one atrium, one ventricle). Amphibians and reptiles (except crocodiles) have a 3-chambered heart (two atria, one ventricle). Crocodiles, birds and mammals have a 4-chambered heart (two atria, two ventricles). In fishes, the heart pumps out deoxygenated blood (blood without oxygen). The gills add oxygen to it, and then it goes to the body. Blood passes through the heart only once, so this is single circulation. In amphibians and reptiles, the left atrium gets oxygenated blood (from gills, lungs or skin) and the right atrium gets deoxygenated blood, but the two mix in the single ventricle. This is incomplete double circulation. In birds and mammals, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept separate. This is double circulation.
15.3.1Human circulatory systemमानव परिसंचरण तंत्रHuman circulatory system
It (the blood vascular system) has a muscular chambered heart, a network of closed branching blood vessels and blood. The heart, of mesodermal origin, lies in the thoracic cavity between the two lungs, slightly tilted to the left, about the size of a clenched fist. It is protected by a double-walled membranous bag, the pericardium, enclosing pericardial fluid. It has four chambers — two small upper atria and two larger lower ventricles. A thin muscular wall, the inter-atrial septum, separates the atria; a thick-walled inter-ventricular septum separates the ventricles; the atrium and ventricle of the same side are separated by a thick fibrous atrio-ventricular septum, each with an opening guarded by a valve — tricuspid (three flaps) on the right, bicuspid or mitral on the left. The openings of the ventricles into the pulmonary artery and aorta have semilunar valves. Valves allow flow in one direction only and prevent backflow. The heart is made of cardiac muscle; ventricle walls are much thicker than atrial walls. Specialised nodal tissue: the sino-atrial node (SAN) in the right upper corner of the right atrium; the atrio-ventricular node (AVN) in the lower left corner of the right atrium close to the AV septum; from the AVN a bundle of nodal fibres, the atrio-ventricular bundle (AV bundle / bundle of His), passes through the upper inter-ventricular septum, divides into right and left bundles, which give minute fibres throughout the ventricular musculature — Purkinje fibres. Nodal musculature is autoexcitable — generates action potentials without external stimuli; the SAN generates the maximum (70–75 min⁻¹) and initiates and maintains rhythmic contraction — the pacemaker. The heart normally beats 70–75 times a minute (average 72). SAN, AVN, tricuspid valve, 3D heart3D.इसमें (रुधिर संवहनी तंत्र) पेशीय कक्षीय हृदय, बंद शाखित रुधिर वाहिकाओं का जाल और रुधिर। मध्यजनस्तरी हृदय वक्ष गुहा में दोनों फेफड़ों के बीच, थोड़ा बाईं ओर झुका, बंद मुट्ठी जितना। यह दोहरी भित्ति वाली झिल्लीमय थैली हृदयावरण (पेरिकार्डियम) से रक्षित, जिसमें हृदयावरणी द्रव। चार कक्ष — दो छोटे ऊपरी अलिंद, दो बड़े निचले निलय। पतली पेशीय अंतर-अलिंदी पट अलिंदों को, मोटी अंतर-निलयी पट निलयों को अलग करती; एक ओर के अलिंद व निलय मोटे रेशेदार अलिंद-निलय पट से अलग, जिसमें कपाटयुक्त छिद्र — दाईं ओर त्रिवलनी (तीन पल्ले), बाईं ओर द्विवलनी या माइट्रल। निलयों के फुप्फुस धमनी और महाधमनी में छिद्रों पर अर्धचंद्र कपाट। कपाट एक दिशा में प्रवाह देते, उलटा रोकते। हृदय हृद पेशी से बना; निलय भित्तियाँ अलिंदों से बहुत मोटी। विशिष्ट पर्व ऊतक: दाएँ अलिंद के दाएँ ऊपरी कोने में शिरा-अलिंद पर्व (SAN); दाएँ अलिंद के निचले बाएँ कोने में AV पट के पास अलिंद-निलय पर्व (AVN); AVN से तंतुओं का बंडल अलिंद-निलय बंडल (हिस का बंडल) ऊपरी अंतर-निलयी पट से होकर दाईं-बाईं शाखाओं में बँटता, जो निलय पेशियों में सूक्ष्म पुरकिंजे तंतु देतीं। पर्व पेशी स्वउत्तेजनशील — बिना बाह्य उद्दीपन क्रिया विभव; SAN सर्वाधिक (70–75 प्रति मिनट) बनाकर लयबद्ध संकुचन शुरू व बनाए रखता — गति प्रेरक (पेसमेकर)। हृदय सामान्यतः 70–75 बार प्रति मिनट (औसत 72) धड़कता। SAN, AVN, त्रिवलनी कपाट, 3D हृदय3D।Heart: mesodermal, pericardium, 4 chambers (atria upar, ventricles neeche). Septa; tricuspid (right), bicuspid/mitral (left), semilunar (aorta, pulmonary artery). Nodal tissue: SAN (pacemaker, 70–75/min) → AVN → bundle of His → Purkinje fibres. Avg 72 beats/min. SAN, AVN, 3D heart3D.The human blood vascular system has a muscular heart with chambers, a network of closed, branching blood vessels, and blood. The heart forms from the mesoderm. It lies in the chest between the two lungs, a little tilted to the left, and it is about the size of a closed fist. It is protected by a two-layered bag called the pericardium, which holds pericardial fluid. It has four chambers: two small upper atria and two bigger lower ventricles. A thin muscular wall, the inter-atrial septum, separates the two atria. A thick wall, the inter-ventricular septum, separates the two ventricles. The atrium and ventricle on the same side are separated by a thick fibrous wall, the atrio-ventricular septum. Each side has an opening with a valve: the tricuspid valve (three flaps) on the right, and the bicuspid or mitral valve on the left. Where the ventricles open into the pulmonary artery and the aorta, there are semilunar valves. Valves let blood flow only one way and stop it from flowing back. The heart is made of cardiac muscle. The walls of the ventricles are much thicker than the walls of the atria. The heart also has special nodal tissue. The sino-atrial node (SAN) is in the upper right corner of the right atrium. The atrio-ventricular node (AVN) is in the lower left corner of the right atrium, near the AV septum. From the AVN, a bundle of fibres called the AV bundle (bundle of His) goes through the upper part of the inter-ventricular septum. It splits into right and left branches, which give tiny fibres all through the ventricle muscles. These are the Purkinje fibres. Nodal muscle is autoexcitable — it can make its own electrical signals (action potentials) without any outside trigger. The SAN makes the most signals (70–75 min⁻¹). It starts and keeps up the rhythm of the heart, so it is called the pacemaker. The heart normally beats 70–75 times a minute (average 72). 3D heart3D. 👉 tricuspid valve
15.3.2Cardiac cycleहृद चक्रCardiac cycle
Initially all four chambers are relaxed — joint diastole. As the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open, blood from the pulmonary veins and vena cava flows into the left and right ventricles through the atria; semilunar valves are closed. The SAN generates an action potential that makes both atria contract — atrial systole — increasing flow into the ventricles by about 30%. The impulse is conducted by the AVN and AV bundle, and the bundle of His carries it through the ventricular musculature, causing ventricular systole while the atria relax (diastole). Ventricular pressure rises, closing the tricuspid and bicuspid valves (no backflow); further rise opens the semilunar valves, and blood flows into the pulmonary artery (right) and aorta (left) — the ventricles relax (ventricular diastole), pressure falls, semilunar valves close; when ventricular pressure falls further the AV valves open and the cycle repeats. This sequence of events in one beat is the cardiac cycle — systole and diastole of both atria and ventricles. With 72 beats per minute, one cycle takes 0.8 s. Each ventricle pumps about 70 mL per beat — the stroke volume; stroke volume × heart rate = cardiac output, about 5000 mL (5 L) per minute; athletes have a much higher cardiac output. Heart sounds (heard with a stethoscope): the first, lub, from closure of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves; the second, dub, from closure of the semilunar valves — clinically important.आरंभ में चारों कक्ष शिथिल — संयुक्त अनुशिथिलन (जॉइंट डायस्टोल)। त्रिवलनी व द्विवलनी कपाट खुले, फुप्फुस शिराओं व महाशिरा का रुधिर अलिंदों से होकर बाएँ-दाएँ निलय में; अर्धचंद्र कपाट बंद। SAN का क्रिया विभव दोनों अलिंदों को संकुचित करता — अलिंद प्रकुंचन — निलयों में प्रवाह लगभग 30% बढ़ता। आवेग AVN और AV बंडल से, और हिस का बंडल इसे निलय पेशियों में फैलाता — निलय प्रकुंचन, अलिंद शिथिल (अनुशिथिलन)। निलय दाब बढ़ने से त्रिवलनी व द्विवलनी कपाट बंद (उलटा प्रवाह नहीं); और बढ़ने पर अर्धचंद्र कपाट खुलते, रुधिर फुप्फुस धमनी (दायाँ) और महाधमनी (बायाँ) में — फिर निलय शिथिल (निलय अनुशिथिलन), दाब घटता, अर्धचंद्र कपाट बंद; और घटने पर AV कपाट खुलते, चक्र दोहराता। एक धड़कन की यह घटना-शृंखला हृद चक्र — अलिंदों व निलयों का प्रकुंचन और अनुशिथिलन। 72 धड़कन/मिनट पर एक चक्र 0.8 सेकंड। हर निलय प्रति धड़कन लगभग 70 mL — प्रवाह आयतन (स्ट्रोक वॉल्यूम); प्रवाह आयतन × हृदय गति = हृद निकास, लगभग 5000 mL (5 L) प्रति मिनट; खिलाड़ियों में बहुत अधिक। हृदय ध्वनियाँ (स्टेथोस्कोप): पहली लब — त्रिवलनी व द्विवलनी कपाट बंद होने से; दूसरी डब — अर्धचंद्र कपाट बंद होने से — नैदानिक महत्व।Joint diastole → SAN → atrial systole (+30% blood) → AVN → bundle of His → ventricular systole (AV valves band, semilunar khule) → ventricular diastole (semilunar band). Ek cycle 0.8 s; stroke volume 70 mL; cardiac output = SV × HR ≈ 5 L/min. Lub = AV valves band, dub = semilunar band.At first, all four chambers are relaxed — this is joint diastole. The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open, so blood from the pulmonary veins and the vena cava flows through the atria into the ventricles. The semilunar valves are closed. Then the SAN sends out a signal that makes both atria contract — this is atrial systole. It pushes about 30% more blood into the ventricles. The signal is passed on by the AVN and the AV bundle, and the bundle of His carries it through the ventricle muscles. This makes the ventricles contract (ventricular systole), while the atria relax (diastole). The pressure in the ventricles rises, which closes the tricuspid and bicuspid valves (so blood does not flow back). As pressure rises more, the semilunar valves open, and blood flows into the pulmonary artery (from the right ventricle) and the aorta (from the left ventricle). Then the ventricles relax (ventricular diastole), the pressure falls, and the semilunar valves close. When the pressure falls further, the AV valves open and the cycle starts again. This series of events in one heartbeat is called the cardiac cycle. It includes the systole and diastole of both atria and ventricles. At 72 beats per minute, one cycle takes 0.8 s. Each ventricle pumps out about 70 mL of blood in each beat. This is the stroke volume. Stroke volume × heart rate = cardiac output, which is about 5000 mL (5 L) per minute. Athletes have a much higher cardiac output. Heart sounds can be heard with a stethoscope. The first sound, lub, comes from the closing of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves. The second sound, dub, comes from the closing of the semilunar valves. These sounds are important for doctors.
15.3.3Electrocardiogram (ECG)विद्युत हृद लेख (ECG)ECG
An ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle, obtained with an electrocardiograph; for a standard ECG the patient is connected with three electrical leads — one on each wrist and one on the left ankle. Each peak is labelled P to T. The P-wave represents electrical excitation (depolarisation) of the atria, leading to atrial contraction. The QRS complex represents depolarisation of the ventricles, initiating ventricular contraction; contraction starts shortly after Q and marks the beginning of systole. The T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state (repolarisation); its end marks the end of systole. Counting QRS complexes in a time period gives the heart beat rate. Since ECGs from different individuals have roughly the same shape for a given lead configuration, any deviation indicates a possible abnormality — hence great clinical significance. P-wave, QRS, T-wave.ECG हृद चक्र में हृदय की विद्युत क्रिया का आलेख, इलेक्ट्रोकार्डियोग्राफ़ से; मानक ECG हेतु तीन लीड — दोनों कलाइयों और बाएँ टखने पर। चोटियाँ P से T नामित। P-तरंग अलिंदों का विद्युत उत्तेजन (विध्रुवण) — अलिंद संकुचन। QRS सम्मिश्र निलयों का विध्रुवण — निलय संकुचन की शुरुआत; Q के तुरंत बाद संकुचन, प्रकुंचन का आरंभ। T-तरंग निलयों का उत्तेजित से सामान्य अवस्था में लौटना (पुनर्ध्रुवण); इसका अंत प्रकुंचन का अंत। एक समय में QRS गिनकर हृदय गति। एक लीड व्यवस्था में सभी के ECG लगभग एक जैसे, अतः कोई विचलन असामान्यता दर्शाता — नैदानिक महत्व। P-तरंग, QRS, T-तरंग।ECG: leads dono wrists + left ankle. P = atria depolarise; QRS = ventricles depolarise (systole shuru); T = ventricles repolarise (systole khatam). QRS gin kar heart rate. P, QRS, T.An ECG (electrocardiogram) is a graph of the electrical activity of the heart during one cardiac cycle. It is taken with a machine called an electrocardiograph. For a standard ECG, three wires (leads) are attached to the patient — one on each wrist and one on the left ankle. The peaks are named P to T. The P-wave shows the electrical excitation (depolarisation) of the atria, which makes the atria contract. The QRS complex shows the depolarisation of the ventricles, which starts the ventricles contracting. The contraction starts just after Q and marks the start of systole. The T-wave shows the ventricles going back from the excited state to the normal state (repolarisation). The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole. By counting the QRS complexes in a fixed time, we can find the heart beat rate. ECGs of different people look roughly the same for the same lead setup. So any change from the normal shape can mean a problem. That is why the ECG is very important in medicine (clinical significance).
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15.4Double circulationदोहरा परिसंचरणDouble circulation
Blood pumped by the right ventricle enters the pulmonary artery, while the left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta. Deoxygenated blood pumped into the pulmonary artery goes to the lungs, and oxygenated blood returns via the pulmonary veins into the left atrium — pulmonary circulation. Oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by arteries, arterioles and capillaries to the tissues, and deoxygenated blood is collected by venules, veins and the vena cava into the right atrium — systemic circulation, which provides nutrients, O₂ and other essentials to tissues and takes away CO₂ and wastes. A unique vascular connection between the digestive tract and liver is the hepatic portal system — the hepatic portal vein carries blood from the intestine to the liver before it reaches systemic circulation. A special coronary system of vessels serves the cardiac musculature. Pulmonary, systemic, 3D circulation3D.दायाँ निलय रुधिर फुप्फुस धमनी में, बायाँ निलय महाधमनी में पंप करता। फुप्फुस धमनी का विऑक्सीजनित रुधिर फेफड़ों में जाकर ऑक्सीजनित होकर फुप्फुस शिराओं से बाएँ अलिंद में — फुप्फुसीय परिसंचरण। महाधमनी का ऑक्सीजनित रुधिर धमनियों, धमनिकाओं, केशिकाओं से ऊतकों तक, और विऑक्सीजनित रुधिर शिरिकाओं, शिराओं व महाशिरा से दाएँ अलिंद में — दैहिक परिसंचरण, जो ऊतकों को पोषक, O₂ आदि देता और CO₂ व अपशिष्ट हटाता। आहार नाल और यकृत के बीच अनोखा संवहनी संबंध यकृत निवाहिका तंत्र — यकृत निवाहिका शिरा आंत्र से रुधिर को दैहिक परिसंचरण से पहले यकृत ले जाती। हृद पेशी हेतु विशेष हृद (कोरोनरी) तंत्र। फुप्फुसीय, दैहिक, 3D परिसंचरण3D।Pulmonary: RV → pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary veins → LA. Systemic: LV → aorta → tissues → vena cava → RA. Hepatic portal (intestine → liver), coronary (heart muscle). Pulmonary, systemic, 3D circulation3D.The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta. Deoxygenated blood in the Pulmonary artery goes to the lungs. Oxygenated blood comes back through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. This is pulmonary circulation. Oxygenated blood in the aorta is carried by arteries, arterioles and capillaries to the tissues. Deoxygenated blood is collected by venules, veins and the vena cava and brought back to the right atrium. This is systemic circulation. It gives nutrients, O₂ and other needed things to the tissues, and takes away CO₂ and wastes. There is a special blood link between the digestive tract and the liver, called the hepatic portal system. The hepatic portal vein carries blood from the intestine to the liver before it goes into the systemic circulation. A special coronary system of blood vessels supplies the heart muscle itself. 3D circulation3D.
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15.5Regulation of cardiac activityहृद क्रिया का नियमनHeart ka regulation
Normal heart activity is regulated intrinsically by the specialised (nodal) muscles — hence the heart is myogenic. A special neural centre in the medulla oblongata can moderate it through the autonomic nervous system (ANS): sympathetic nerves increase the heart rate, the strength of ventricular contraction and thereby cardiac output; parasympathetic signals decrease the heart rate and the speed of action-potential conduction, and thereby cardiac output. Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase cardiac output.हृदय की सामान्य क्रिया विशिष्ट (पर्व) पेशियों द्वारा आंतरिक रूप से नियंत्रित — इसलिए हृदय पेशीजनक (मायोजेनिक)। मेडुला ऑब्लांगेटा का विशेष तंत्रिका केंद्र स्वायत्त तंत्रिका तंत्र (ANS) से इसे बदल सकता: अनुकंपी तंत्रिकाएँ हृदय गति, निलय संकुचन बल और हृद निकास बढ़ातीं; परानुकंपी संकेत हृदय गति व क्रिया विभव चालन गति घटाते, हृद निकास कम। अधिवृक्क मध्यांश के हॉर्मोन भी हृद निकास बढ़ाते।Heart myogenic (nodal tissue khud). Medulla se ANS: sympathetic ↑ rate/force, parasympathetic ↓. Adrenal medulla hormones ↑.The normal working of the heart is controlled from inside by the special nodal muscles. So the heart is called myogenic (its beat starts in the muscle itself). A special nerve centre in the medulla oblongata (in the brain) can adjust it through the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Sympathetic nerves increase the heart rate and the force of ventricle contraction, and so increase the cardiac output. Parasympathetic signals decrease the heart rate and the speed at which the signal travels, and so decrease the cardiac output. Hormones from the adrenal medulla can also increase the cardiac output.
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15.6Disorders of circulatory systemपरिसंचरण तंत्र के विकारCirculatory disorders
- High blood pressure (hypertension) — BP higher than normal (120/80 mm Hg); 120 is systolic (pumping) and 80 diastolic (resting) pressure. Repeated readings of 140/90 or higher indicate hypertension; it leads to heart diseases and affects vital organs like brain and kidney.उच्च रक्तचाप (अतिरक्तदाब) — सामान्य (120/80 mm Hg) से अधिक; 120 प्रकुंचन (पंपिंग) और 80 अनुशिथिलन (विश्राम) दाब। बार-बार 140/90 या अधिक = उच्च रक्तचाप; हृदय रोग और मस्तिष्क, वृक्क जैसे अंगों पर प्रभाव।Hypertension — normal 120/80; 140/90+ = high; dil, dimaag, kidney par asar.
- Coronary artery disease (CAD) — often called atherosclerosis; affects vessels supplying the heart muscle; caused by deposits of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissue, narrowing the lumen of arteries.हृद धमनी रोग (CAD) — प्रायः एथेरोस्क्लेरोसिस; हृद पेशी को रक्त देने वाली वाहिकाओं पर; कैल्शियम, वसा, कोलेस्ट्रॉल और रेशेदार ऊतक के जमाव से धमनी की गुहा संकरी।CAD/atherosclerosis — Ca, fat, cholesterol jamav.
- Angina (angina pectoris) — acute chest pain when not enough O₂ reaches the heart muscle; can occur at any age but is more common in middle-aged and elderly; due to conditions that affect blood flow.एंजाइना (एंजाइना पेक्टोरिस) — हृद पेशी तक पर्याप्त O₂ न पहुँचने पर तीव्र सीने का दर्द; किसी भी आयु में, पर अधेड़ व वृद्धों में अधिक; रक्त प्रवाह प्रभावित होने से।Angina — heart ko kam O₂ → seene mein dard.
- Heart failure — the heart is not pumping blood effectively enough to meet the body’s needs; sometimes called congestive heart failure because congestion of the lungs is a main symptom. Not the same as cardiac arrest (heart stops beating) or heart attack (heart muscle suddenly damaged by inadequate blood supply).हृदपात (हार्ट फ़ेल्योर) — हृदय शरीर की आवश्यकता जितना प्रभावी पंप नहीं करता; फेफड़ों में जमाव मुख्य लक्षण, इसलिए संकुलित हृदपात भी। यह हृद्-रोध (धड़कन रुकना) या हृदयाघात (अपर्याप्त रक्त से हृद पेशी की अचानक क्षति) से भिन्न।Heart failure — kam pump, lungs mein congestion; cardiac arrest/heart attack se alag.
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★ Yaad rakho — quick revision★ याद रखो — झटपट दोहराव★ Yaad rakho — quick revision
- Plasma ≈ 55% of blood: 90–92% water, 6–8% proteins (fibrinogen → clotting; globulins → defence; albumins → osmotic balance). Formed elements ≈ 45%.प्लाज़्मा ≈ रुधिर का 55%: 90–92% जल, 6–8% प्रोटीन (फाइब्रिनोजन → स्कंदन; ग्लोबुलिन → रक्षा; एल्ब्यूमिन → परासरणी संतुलन)। संगठित पदार्थ ≈ 45%।Plasma 55% (90–92% paani, 6–8% protein: fibrinogen = clotting, globulin = defence, albumin = osmotic balance); formed elements 45%.
- RBC: 5–5.5 million/mm³, no nucleus (most mammals), biconcave, life 120 days, destroyed in spleen; Hb 12–16 g/100 mL.RBC: 5–5.5 मिलियन/mm³, केंद्रकविहीन (अधिकांश स्तनधारी), उभयावतल, आयु 120 दिन, प्लीहा में नष्ट; Hb 12–16 g/100 mL।RBC 5–5.5 million/mm³, nucleus nahi, 120 din, spleen mein destroy; Hb 12–16 g/100 mL.
- WBC 6000–8000/mm³: neutrophils 60–65% > lymphocytes 20–25% > monocytes 6–8% > eosinophils 2–3% > basophils 0.5–1%. Platelets 1.5–3.5 lakh/mm³ (from megakaryocytes).WBC 6000–8000/mm³: न्यूट्रोफ़िल 60–65% > लिंफ़ोसाइट 20–25% > मोनोसाइट 6–8% > इओसिनोफ़िल 2–3% > बेसोफ़िल 0.5–1%। पट्टिकाणु 1.5–3.5 लाख/mm³ (गुरुकेंद्रकाणु से)।WBC 6000–8000/mm³ — order: neutrophil > lymphocyte > monocyte > eosinophil > basophil. Platelets 1.5–3.5 lakh/mm³ (megakaryocytes se).
- AB = universal recipient; O = universal donor. Rh⁻ mother + Rh⁺ foetus (2nd pregnancy) → erythroblastosis foetalis; prevented by anti-Rh antibodies to the mother after the first delivery.AB = सर्वआदाता; O = सर्वदाता। Rh⁻ माँ + Rh⁺ भ्रूण (दूसरी गर्भावस्था) → गर्भ रक्ताणु-कोरकता; पहले प्रसव के बाद माँ को Rh-प्रतिरक्षी देकर रोकथाम।AB universal recipient, O universal donor. Rh⁻ maa + Rh⁺ baby → erythroblastosis foetalis (2nd pregnancy); anti-Rh antibodies se bachav.
- Clotting: thrombokinases → prothrombin → thrombin (Ca²⁺ needed) → fibrinogen → fibrin threads.स्कंदन: थ्रोम्बोकाइनेज → प्रोथ्रोम्बिन → थ्रोम्बिन (Ca²⁺ आवश्यक) → फाइब्रिनोजन → फाइब्रिन तंतु।Clotting: prothrombin → thrombin (Ca²⁺ chahiye) → fibrinogen → fibrin.
- Hearts: fish 2 chambers; amphibians & reptiles (except crocodiles) 3; crocodiles, birds, mammals 4.हृदय: मछली 2 कक्ष; उभयचर व सरीसृप (मगरमच्छ छोड़कर) 3; मगरमच्छ, पक्षी, स्तनधारी 4।Fish 2, amphibian/reptile 3 (crocodile chhodkar), crocodile/bird/mammal 4 chambers.
- SAN (pacemaker, 70–75/min) → AVN → bundle of His → Purkinje fibres. Cardiac cycle 0.8 s; stroke volume ≈ 70 mL; cardiac output ≈ 5000 mL/min.SAN (गति प्रेरक, 70–75/मिनट) → AVN → हिस का बंडल → पुरकिंजे तंतु। हृद चक्र 0.8 s; प्रवाह आयतन ≈ 70 mL; हृद निकास ≈ 5000 mL/मिनट।SAN (pacemaker 70–75/min) → AVN → bundle of His → Purkinje. Cardiac cycle 0.8 s, stroke volume 70 mL, cardiac output ~5 L/min.
- Heart sounds: lub = closure of tricuspid & bicuspid valves; dub = closure of semilunar valves. ECG: P = atrial depolarisation, QRS = ventricular depolarisation, T = ventricular repolarisation.हृदय ध्वनियाँ: लब = त्रिवलनी व द्विवलनी कपाट बंद; डब = अर्धचंद्र कपाट बंद। ECG: P = अलिंद विध्रुवण, QRS = निलय विध्रुवण, T = निलय पुनर्ध्रुवण।Lub = AV valves band; dub = semilunar valves band. ECG: P atria depolarise, QRS ventricles depolarise, T ventricles repolarise.
- Normal BP 120/80 mm Hg; hypertension = 140/90 or higher, repeatedly.सामान्य रक्तचाप 120/80 mm Hg; उच्च रक्तचाप = बार-बार 140/90 या अधिक।Normal BP 120/80; hypertension 140/90 ya zyada (baar-baar).
⚠ Common mistakes⚠ आम गलतियाँ⚠ Common mistakes
- Calling the SA node a nerve — it is a patch of specialised cardiac muscle (nodal tissue); the heart is myogenic, not neurogenic.SA गाँठ को तंत्रिका कहना — यह विशिष्ट हृद पेशी (गाँठ ऊतक) है; हृदय पेशीजनक है, तंत्रिकाजनक नहीं।SAN ko nerve mat kahiye — ye special cardiac muscle hai; heart myogenic hai.
- Writing that “lub” is due to semilunar valves — lub = AV valves closing at the start of ventricular systole; dub = semilunar valves closing at its end.“लब” को अर्धचंद्र कपाटों से जोड़ना — लब = निलय प्रकुंचन के आरंभ में AV कपाट बंद; डब = अंत में अर्धचंद्र कपाट बंद।Lub = AV valves, dub = semilunar valves — ulta mat likhiye.
- Saying O is the universal recipient — O is the universal donor; AB is the universal recipient (no anti-A or anti-B antibodies).O को सर्वआदाता कहना — O सर्वदाता है; AB सर्वआदाता (कोई प्रति-A या प्रति-B प्रतिरक्षी नहीं)।O = donor, AB = recipient.
- Saying the pulmonary vein carries deoxygenated blood — the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood (lungs → left atrium), the pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood.फुफ्फुस शिरा को विऑक्सीजनित रक्त वाली कहना — फुफ्फुस शिरा ऑक्सीजनित रक्त लाती है (फेफड़े → बायाँ अलिंद)।Pulmonary vein = oxygenated blood (exception yaad rakhiye).
- Treating lymph as blood without cells — lymph has lymphocytes but no RBCs, platelets or large proteins.लसीका को कोशिकाविहीन रुधिर मानना — इसमें लिंफ़ोसाइट होते हैं, पर RBC, पट्टिकाणु व बड़े प्रोटीन नहीं।Lymph mein lymphocytes hote hain, RBC nahi.
- Mixing up heart attack and cardiac arrest — arrest = heart stops beating; attack = heart muscle suddenly damaged by poor blood supply.हृदयाघात व हृद्-रोध को एक मानना — हृद्-रोध = धड़कन रुकना; हृदयाघात = अपर्याप्त रक्त से हृद पेशी की अचानक क्षति।Cardiac arrest = dhadkan ruk jaana; heart attack = muscle damage.
✎ NCERT questions — short answers✎ NCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तर✎ NCERT questions — short answers
NCERT exercises (tap a question to see the answer)NCERT अभ्यास (उत्तर देखने के लिए प्रश्न पर टैप करें)NCERT exercises (answer dekhne ke liye question par tap kijiye)
1. Name the components of the formed elements in the blood and mention one major function of each of them.1. रुधिर के संगठित पदार्थों के अवयवों का वर्णन करें तथा प्रत्येक अवयव के एक प्रमुख कार्य के बारे में लिखें।1. Formed elements ke components aur unka ek-ek kaam.
2. What is the importance of plasma proteins?2. प्लाज़्मा प्रोटीन का क्या महत्व है?2. Plasma proteins ka importance.
3. Match Column I with Column II: (a) Eosinophils (b) RBC (c) AB Group (d) Platelets (e) Systole — (i) Coagulation (ii) Universal Recipient (iii) Resist Infections (iv) Contraction of Heart (v) Gas transport3. स्तंभ I का स्तंभ II से मिलान करें: (a) इओसिनोफ़िल (b) लाल रुधिर कणिकाएँ (c) AB रक्त समूह (d) पट्टिकाणु (e) प्रकुंचन — (i) रक्त स्कंदन (ii) सर्वआदाता (iii) संक्रमण प्रतिरोध (iv) हृदय संकुचन (v) गैस परिवहन3. Match the columns.
4. Why do we consider blood as a connective tissue?4. रुधिर को एक संयोजी ऊतक क्यों मानते हैं?4. Blood connective tissue kyon?
5. What is the difference between lymph and blood?5. लसीका एवं रुधिर में अंतर बताएँ।5. Lymph aur blood mein difference.
6. What is meant by double circulation? What is its significance?6. दोहरे परिसंचरण से क्या तात्पर्य है? इसकी क्या महत्ता है?6. Double circulation kya hai, kyon zaroori?
7. Write the differences between: (a) Blood and Lymph (b) Open and Closed system of circulation (c) Systole and Diastole (d) P-wave and T-wave7. भेद स्पष्ट करें: (a) रुधिर एवं लसीका (b) खुला व बंद परिसंचरण तंत्र (c) प्रकुंचन तथा अनुशिथिलन (d) P तरंग तथा T तरंग7. Differences (a)–(d).
8. Describe the evolutionary change in the pattern of heart among the vertebrates.8. कशेरुकियों के हृदयों में विकासीय परिवर्तनों का वर्णन करें।8. Vertebrates mein heart ka evolution.
9. Why do we call our heart myogenic?9. हम अपने हृदय को पेशीजनक (मायोजेनिक) क्यों कहते हैं?9. Heart myogenic kyon?
10. Sino-atrial node is called the pacemaker of our heart. Why?10. शिरा-अलिंद पर्व (कोटरालिंद गाँठ, SAN) को हृदय का गति प्रेरक (पेसमेकर) क्यों कहा जाता है?10. SAN pacemaker kyon?
11. What is the significance of atrio-ventricular node and atrio-ventricular bundle in the functioning of heart?11. अलिंद-निलय गाँठ (AVN) तथा अलिंद-निलय बंडल (AV बंडल) का हृदय के कार्य में क्या महत्व है?11. AVN aur AV bundle ka role.
12. Define a cardiac cycle and the cardiac output.12. हृद चक्र तथा हृद निकास को परिभाषित करें।12. Cardiac cycle aur cardiac output.
13. Explain heart sounds.13. हृदय ध्वनियों की व्याख्या करें।13. Heart sounds.
14. Draw a standard ECG and explain the different segments in it.14. एक मानक ECG को दर्शाएँ तथा उसके विभिन्न खंडों का वर्णन करें।14. Standard ECG draw karke explain.
🎯 Quiz — 14 questions🎯 क्विज़ — 14 प्रश्न🎯 Quiz — 14 questions
Tap an option. The answer and a short reason appear at once.किसी विकल्प पर टैप करें। उत्तर और छोटा कारण तुरंत दिखेगा।Kisi option par tap kijiye. Answer aur chhota reason turant dikhega.
1. Which plasma protein is mainly involved in clotting?स्कंदन में मुख्यतः कौन-सा प्लाज़्मा प्रोटीन?Clotting protein?
2. The most abundant WBCs are …सबसे अधिक संख्या वाली WBC …Sabse zyada WBC?
3. The average life span of human RBCs is …मनुष्य की RBC की औसत आयु …RBC life?
4. A person with blood group AB has …AB रक्त समूह वाले व्यक्ति में …AB group mein?
5. Erythroblastosis foetalis occurs when …गर्भ रक्ताणु-कोरकता कब होती है?Erythroblastosis foetalis kab?
6. Which ion is essential for blood clotting?रुधिर स्कंदन के लिए कौन-सा आयन आवश्यक?Clotting ke liye ion?
7. Fats are absorbed through lymph in the …वसा का अवशोषण लसीका द्वारा कहाँ?Fat absorption kahan?
8. A 3-chambered heart is found in …3 कक्षीय हृदय किसमें?3-chamber heart?
9. The pacemaker of the human heart is the …मानव हृदय का गति प्रेरक …Pacemaker?
10. The valve between the left atrium and left ventricle is …बाएँ अलिंद व बाएँ निलय के बीच का कपाट …Left AV valve?
11. Duration of one cardiac cycle at 72 beats/min is …72 धड़कन/मिनट पर एक हृद चक्र …Cardiac cycle time?
12. The second heart sound “dub” is due to closure of …दूसरी ध्वनि “डब” किसके बंद होने से?“Dub” kisse?
13. In an ECG, the QRS complex represents …ECG में QRS सम्मिश्र …QRS kya batata hai?
14. Blood pressure is called hypertension when it is repeatedly …रक्तचाप कब उच्च रक्तचाप कहलाता है?Hypertension kab?
Found a mistake?कोई गलती दिखी?Koi galti dikhi? Report a mistakeगलती बताइएGalti bataiye — we fix confirmed errors quickly.— पक्की गलतियाँ हम जल्दी ठीक करते हैं।— confirm galtiyan hum jaldi theek karte hain.
These are Simple Learning Hub's own study notes written to follow the NCERT Class 11 Biology textbook (2026-27 reprint of the rationalised edition) section by section; read them with the official NCERT chapter. Diagrams are original SLH drawings based on the NCERT figures they name.ये Simple Learning Hub के अपने स्टडी नोट्स हैं, जो NCERT कक्षा 11 जीव विज्ञान की किताब (2026-27) के हर अनुभाग के साथ लिखे गए हैं; इन्हें NCERT के आधिकारिक अध्याय के साथ पढ़िए। डायग्राम SLH के अपने बनाए चित्र हैं।Ye Simple Learning Hub ke apne study notes hain, jo NCERT Class 11 Biology ki kitaab (2026-27) ke har section ke saath likhe gaye hain; inhe NCERT ke official chapter ke saath padhiye. Diagrams SLH ki apni drawings hain.