Ch 11Photosynthesis in Higher Plantsउच्च पादपों में प्रकाश-संश्लेषणPhotosynthesis in Higher Plants
Early experiments, site of photosynthesis, pigments, light reaction, Z scheme, photophosphorylation, chemiosmosis, Calvin cycle, C₄ pathway, photorespiration and limiting factors — with tappable diagrams.प्रारंभिक प्रयोग, प्रकाश-संश्लेषण का स्थल, वर्णक, प्रकाश अभिक्रिया, Z योजना, प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन, रसोपरासरण, केल्विन चक्र, C₄ पथ, प्रकाश श्वसन और सीमाकारी कारक — टैप करने वाले चित्रों के साथ।Early experiments, photosynthesis kahan, pigments, light reaction, Z scheme, photophosphorylation, chemiosmosis, Calvin cycle, C₄ pathway, photorespiration, limiting factors — tap wale diagrams ke saath.
Didn’t understand a paragraph? Tap it (or its Explain button) → Hindi / Hinglish / Simple English.कोई पैराग्राफ़ समझ नहीं आया? उस पर (या समझें बटन पर) टैप करें → अंग्रेज़ी / हिंग्लिश।Koi paragraph samajh nahi aaya? Us par (ya Samjho button par) tap kijiye → Hindi / English.
Diagrams in this chapterइस अध्याय के डायग्रामIs chapter ke diagrams
▶ Animate: the Calvin cycle step by step▶ एनिमेट: केल्विन चक्र चरण दर चरण▶ Animate: Calvin cycle step by stepAnimated
▶ Animate: how the proton gradient makes ATP▶ एनिमेट: प्रोटॉन प्रवणता से ATP कैसे बनता है▶ Animate: proton gradient se ATP kaise banta haiAnimated
Z scheme of light reactionप्रकाश अभिक्रिया की Z योजनाZ scheme of light reactionFig 11.5
The Calvin cycle (C₃ cycle)केल्विन चक्र (C₃ चक्र)The Calvin cycle (C₃ cycle)Fig 11.8
The C₄ (Hatch and Slack) pathwayC₄ (हैच और स्लैक) पथThe C₄ (Hatch and Slack) pathwayFig 11.9 (a)
Kranz anatomy of a C₄ leaf (T.S.)C₄ पत्ती की क्रांज़ शारीरिकी (अनुप्रस्थ काट)Kranz anatomy of a C₄ leaf (T.S.)Fig 11.9 (b)
Effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesisप्रकाश-संश्लेषण की दर पर प्रकाश की तीव्रता का प्रभावEffect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesisFig 11.10In this chapter (NCERT sections)इस अध्याय में (NCERT खंड)Is chapter mein (NCERT sections)
- 11.1What do we know?हम क्या जानते हैं?Hum kya jaante hain?
- 11.2Early experimentsप्रारंभिक प्रयोगEarly experiments
- 11.3Where does photosynthesis take place?प्रकाश-संश्लेषण कहाँ होता है?Photosynthesis kahan?
- 11.4How many pigments are involved in photosynthesis?प्रकाश-संश्लेषण में कितने वर्णक भाग लेते हैं?Kitne pigments?
- 11.5What is light reaction?प्रकाश अभिक्रिया क्या है?Light reaction kya?
- 11.6The electron transportइलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहनElectron transport
- 11.7Where are the ATP and NADPH used?ATP और NADPH कहाँ उपयोग होते हैं?ATP-NADPH kahan use?
- 11.8The C₄ pathwayC₄ पथC₄ pathway
- 11.9Photorespirationप्रकाश श्वसनPhotorespiration
- 11.10Factors affecting photosynthesisप्रकाश-संश्लेषण को प्रभावित करने वाले कारकPhotosynthesis ke factors
- ★Yaad rakho — quick revisionयाद रखो — झटपट दोहरावYaad rakho — quick revision
- ⚠Common mistakesआम गलतियाँCommon mistakes
- ✎NCERT questions — short answersNCERT प्रश्न — संक्षिप्त उत्तरNCERT questions — short answers
- 🎯Quizक्विज़Quiz
Green plants make their own food by photosynthesis — a physico-chemical process that uses light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds. All life on earth ultimately depends on it: it is the primary source of all food and it releases oxygen into the atmosphere.हरे पादप प्रकाश-संश्लेषण से अपना भोजन बनाते हैं — एक भौतिक-रासायनिक प्रक्रिया जो प्रकाश ऊर्जा से कार्बनिक यौगिक बनाती है। पृथ्वी का पूरा जीवन इस पर निर्भर: यह सारे भोजन का प्राथमिक स्रोत है और वायुमंडल में ऑक्सीजन छोड़ता है।Green plants photosynthesis se khana banate — light energy se organic compounds. Saare khane ka source + oxygen.Green plants make their own food by photosynthesis. It is a physical and chemical process that uses light energy to make organic compounds (food). All life on earth finally depends on it, for two reasons. It is the main source of all food, and it gives out oxygen into the air.
11.1What do we know?हम क्या जानते हैं?Hum kya jaante hain?
Simple experiments show that chlorophyll, light and CO₂ are required. In a variegated leaf (or a leaf partly covered with black paper) kept in light and tested for starch, only the green, lighted parts show starch. Half-leaf experiment: a leaf partly enclosed in a test tube with KOH-soaked cotton (which absorbs CO₂) — the enclosed part shows no starch, proving CO₂ is needed.सरल प्रयोग दिखाते हैं कि पर्णहरित (क्लोरोफ़िल), प्रकाश और CO₂ आवश्यक हैं। चित्तीदार पत्ती (या आंशिक काले कागज़ से ढकी पत्ती) में मंड परीक्षण पर केवल हरे, प्रकाशित भाग में मंड। अर्ध-पत्ती प्रयोग: पत्ती का भाग KOH भीगी रुई (जो CO₂ सोखती है) वाली परखनली में — उस भाग में मंड नहीं, अतः CO₂ आवश्यक।Chlorophyll, light, CO₂ zaroori. Variegated leaf: sirf hare + roshni wale hisse mein starch. KOH (CO₂ sokhta) wale hisse mein starch nahi.Simple experiments show that photosynthesis needs chlorophyll, light and CO₂. Take a variegated leaf (a leaf with green and white patches), or a leaf partly covered with black paper. Keep it in light and then test it for starch. Only the green parts that got light show starch. Half-leaf experiment: put part of a leaf inside a test tube with cotton soaked in KOH (KOH absorbs CO₂). The part inside the tube shows no starch. This proves that CO₂ is needed.
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11.2Early experimentsप्रारंभिक प्रयोगEarly experiments
- Joseph Priestley (1770) — a candle or a mouse in a closed bell jar soon died, but with a mint plant inside they survived: plants restore the air that burning candles or breathing animals remove. He discovered oxygen (1774).जोसेफ़ प्रीस्टले (1770) — बंद बेल जार में मोमबत्ती या चूहा जल्दी समाप्त, पर पुदीने का पौधा रखने पर बचे: पौधे वह वायु लौटाते हैं जो जलती मोमबत्ती या साँस लेते प्राणी हटाते हैं। ऑक्सीजन (1774) की खोज।Priestley — bell jar, mint plant se candle/mouse bache; O₂ 1774.
- Jan Ingenhousz (1730–1799) — showed that sunlight is essential: the plant purified air only in light; green parts in light gave bubbles (O₂) in water.जॉन इंजेनहाउज़ (1730–1799) — सूर्य प्रकाश आवश्यक: पौधा केवल प्रकाश में वायु शुद्ध करता; प्रकाश में हरे भागों से जल में बुलबुले (O₂)।Ingenhousz — sunlight zaroori, hare hisse bubbles.
- Julius von Sachs (1854) — green parts make glucose, usually stored as starch; chlorophyll is located in special bodies (chloroplasts).जूलियस वॉन सैक्स (1854) — हरे भाग ग्लूकोज़ बनाते, प्रायः मंड के रूप में संचित; क्लोरोफ़िल विशेष कायों (हरितलवक) में।Sachs — glucose → starch, chloroplasts.
- T.W. Engelmann (1843–1909) — split light with a prism onto the alga Cladophora in a suspension of aerobic bacteria; bacteria gathered in blue and red light — the first action spectrum, resembling the absorption spectra of chlorophyll a and b.टी.डब्ल्यू. एंगेलमान (1843–1909) — प्रिज़्म से प्रकाश बाँटकर वायवीय जीवाणुओं के निलंबन में शैवाल क्लैडोफ़ोरा पर; जीवाणु नीले और लाल प्रकाश में एकत्र — पहला क्रिया स्पेक्ट्रम, क्लोरोफ़िल a व b के अवशोषण स्पेक्ट्रम जैसा।Engelmann — Cladophora, bacteria blue + red light mein → action spectrum.
- Cornelius van Niel (1897–1985) — from purple and green bacteria: hydrogen from an oxidisable compound reduces CO₂; in green plants H₂O is the hydrogen donor and is oxidised to O₂ — so O₂ comes from water, not CO₂ (2H₂A + CO₂ → 2A + CH₂O + H₂O). Later confirmed with radio-isotopes.कॉर्नेलियस वैन नील (1897–1985) — बैंगनी व हरे जीवाणुओं से: ऑक्सीकरणीय यौगिक का हाइड्रोजन CO₂ को अपचयित करता; हरे पादपों में H₂O हाइड्रोजन दाता, ऑक्सीकृत होकर O₂ — अतः O₂ जल से आती है, CO₂ से नहीं। बाद में रेडियो-समस्थानिकों से पुष्टि।van Niel — O₂ paani se aati, CO₂ se nahi.
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11.3Where does photosynthesis take place?प्रकाश-संश्लेषण कहाँ होता है?Photosynthesis kahan?
In green parts, mainly leaves, inside mesophyll cells that contain many chloroplasts; chloroplasts align along the walls to get optimum light. Inside the chloroplast, the membrane system (grana, stroma lamellae) traps light and makes ATP and NADPH — the light reaction; enzymatic reactions in the stroma reduce CO₂ to sugar — the biosynthetic (dark) reaction, which is light-driven but does not directly need light. 3D chloroplast3D, 3D leaf3D.हरे भागों, मुख्यतः पत्तियों की पर्णमध्योतक कोशिकाओं में जिनमें अनेक हरितलवक; ये भित्तियों के साथ सज्जित होकर इष्टतम प्रकाश लेते। हरितलवक में झिल्ली तंत्र (ग्रेना, पीठिका पटलिकाएँ) प्रकाश ग्रहण कर ATP और NADPH बनाता — प्रकाश अभिक्रिया; पीठिका में एंजाइमी अभिक्रियाएँ CO₂ को शर्करा में अपचयित करती हैं — जैव-संश्लेषी (अंधकार) अभिक्रिया, जो प्रकाश पर आधारित है पर सीधे प्रकाश नहीं चाहती। 3D हरितलवक3D, 3D पत्ती3D।Leaf mesophyll ke chloroplasts mein. Grana/thylakoids = light reaction (ATP + NADPH). Stroma = dark/biosynthetic reaction (CO₂ → sugar). 3D chloroplast3D, 3D leaf3D.Photosynthesis happens in the green parts, mainly the leaves. It takes place in the mesophyll cells, which have many chloroplasts. The chloroplasts line up along the cell walls to get the best amount of light. Inside the chloroplast, the membranes (grana and stroma lamellae) trap light and make ATP and NADPH. This is the light reaction. In the stroma (the fluid part), enzymes use these to turn CO₂ into sugar. This is the biosynthetic (dark) reaction. It is driven by the products of light, but it does not need light directly. 3D chloroplast3D, 3D leaf3D.
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11.4How many pigments are involved in photosynthesis?प्रकाश-संश्लेषण में कितने वर्णक भाग लेते हैं?Kitne pigments?
Paper chromatography of leaf pigments shows four: chlorophyll a (bright or blue-green), chlorophyll b (yellow-green), xanthophylls (yellow) and carotenoids (yellow to yellow-orange). Chlorophyll a is the chief pigment — its absorption peaks in the blue and red regions match the action spectrum, so most photosynthesis occurs there. Chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids are accessory pigments: they absorb light of other wavelengths and pass the energy to chlorophyll a, widening the range of usable light, and they protect chlorophyll a from photo-oxidation.पत्ती वर्णकों की पेपर क्रोमैटोग्राफ़ी से चार वर्णक: क्लोरोफ़िल a (चमकीला या नीला-हरा), क्लोरोफ़िल b (पीला-हरा), ज़ैंथोफ़िल (पीला) और कैरोटिनॉइड (पीला से पीला-नारंगी)। क्लोरोफ़िल a मुख्य वर्णक है — इसके अवशोषण शिखर नीले और लाल में, क्रिया स्पेक्ट्रम से मेल खाते। क्लोरोफ़िल b, ज़ैंथोफ़िल व कैरोटिनॉइड सहायक वर्णक हैं: अन्य तरंगदैर्घ्य ग्रहण कर ऊर्जा क्लोरोफ़िल a को देते और इसे प्रकाश-ऑक्सीकरण से बचाते हैं।4 pigments: chl a (blue-green, main), chl b (yellow-green), xanthophyll (yellow), carotenoid (orange). Chl a blue + red absorb karta. Baaki accessory — range badhate, chl a ko photo-oxidation se bachate.Paper chromatography (a way of separating colours on paper) shows four pigments in leaves. Chlorophyll a is bright or blue-green. Chlorophyll b is yellow-green. Xanthophylls are yellow. Carotenoids are yellow to yellow-orange. Chlorophyll a is the main pigment. It absorbs most light in the blue and red parts of light, and this matches the action spectrum (where photosynthesis is highest). So most photosynthesis happens in blue and red light. Chlorophyll b, xanthophylls and carotenoids are accessory (helper) pigments. They absorb light of other colours and pass the energy to chlorophyll a, so the plant can use a wider range of light. They also protect chlorophyll a from photo-oxidation (damage by strong light).
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11.5What is light reaction?प्रकाश अभिक्रिया क्या है?Light reaction kya?
Light reactions (the photochemical phase) include light absorption, water splitting, oxygen release and formation of high-energy ATP and NADPH. Pigments are organised into two discrete photochemical light harvesting complexes (LHC) — Photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II), named in order of discovery, not function. Each LHC has hundreds of pigment molecules bound to proteins forming an antenna; the reaction centre is a single chlorophyll a molecule — in PS I it absorbs at 700 nm (P700), in PS II at 680 nm (P680).प्रकाश अभिक्रियाएँ (प्रकाश-रासायनिक चरण) — प्रकाश अवशोषण, जल विघटन, ऑक्सीजन मुक्ति और उच्च ऊर्जा ATP व NADPH का निर्माण। वर्णक दो प्रकाश संग्रही सम्मिश्रों (LHC) — प्रकाश तंत्र I (PS I) और प्रकाश तंत्र II (PS II) — में संगठित (नाम खोज के क्रम में, कार्य के नहीं)। प्रत्येक में सैकड़ों वर्णक अणु प्रोटीन से बँधकर ऐंटेना बनाते; अभिक्रिया केंद्र एक क्लोरोफ़िल a अणु — PS I में 700 nm (P700), PS II में 680 nm (P680)।Light reaction: light absorb, water split, O₂, ATP + NADPH. PS I (reaction centre P700) aur PS II (P680) — naam discovery order se. Antenna + reaction centre (chl a).The light reactions (the photochemical phase) include: absorbing light, splitting water, giving out oxygen, and making the high-energy compounds ATP and NADPH. The pigments are grouped into two separate light harvesting complexes (LHC): Photosystem I (PS I) and Photosystem II (PS II). They are numbered in the order they were discovered, not the order in which they work. Each LHC has hundreds of pigment molecules held by proteins. These form an antenna that collects light. The reaction centre is a single chlorophyll a molecule. In PS I it absorbs light best at 700 nm (P700). In PS II it absorbs best at 680 nm (P680).
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11.6The electron transportइलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहनElectron transport
In PS II, the reaction centre absorbs 680 nm red light; electrons are excited, jump to an orbit farther from the nucleus and are picked up by an electron acceptor, which passes them to an electron transport system of cytochromes. They move downhill on the redox potential scale and reach PS I, where electrons (excited by 700 nm light) are transferred to another acceptor with greater redox potential and then downhill to NADP⁺, reducing it to NADPH + H⁺. This whole path from PS II uphill → downhill to PS I → uphill again → NADP⁺ is the Z scheme. PS II, PS I.PS II में अभिक्रिया केंद्र 680 nm लाल प्रकाश ग्रहण करता; इलेक्ट्रॉन उत्तेजित होकर इलेक्ट्रॉन ग्राही पर, जो उन्हें साइटोक्रोम के इलेक्ट्रॉन परिवहन तंत्र को देता है। वे रेडॉक्स विभव पैमाने पर नीचे की ओर PS I तक; वहाँ 700 nm प्रकाश से उत्तेजित इलेक्ट्रॉन दूसरे ग्राही को, फिर NADP⁺ तक, जो NADPH + H⁺ बनता। PS II से ऊपर → नीचे PS I → फिर ऊपर → NADP⁺ यह पूरा पथ Z योजना है। PS II, PS I।PS II (680) → acceptor → cytochromes (downhill) → PS I (700) → acceptor → NADP⁺ → NADPH. Shape = Z scheme. PS II, PS I.In PS II, the reaction centre absorbs red light of 680 nm. Its electrons get excited (gain energy) and jump to an orbit farther from the nucleus. An electron acceptor picks them up and passes them to an electron transport system of cytochromes. The electrons move downhill on the redox potential scale (from higher to lower energy) and reach PS I. In PS I, electrons are again excited by 700 nm light and passed to another acceptor with greater redox potential. Then they move downhill to NADP⁺ and reduce it to NADPH + H⁺. The whole path — uphill at PS II → downhill to PS I → uphill again → down to NADP⁺ — looks like the letter Z. So it is called the Z scheme.
11.6.1Splitting of waterजल का विघटनWater splitting
PS II needs a continuous supply of electrons; they come from splitting of water: 2H₂O → 4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e⁻. The water-splitting complex is associated with PS II, which lies on the inner side of the thylakoid membrane — so protons and O₂ form in the lumen. O₂ is released as a by-product. Water splitting.PS II को इलेक्ट्रॉनों की निरंतर पूर्ति जल विघटन से: 2H₂O → 4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e⁻। जल-विघटन सम्मिश्र PS II से जुड़ा, जो थाइलेकॉइड झिल्ली के भीतरी ओर स्थित — इसलिए प्रोटॉन और O₂ ल्यूमेन में बनते। O₂ उपोत्पाद के रूप में मुक्त। जल विघटन।2H₂O → 4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e⁻, PS II ke saath, thylakoid ke andar (lumen) ki taraf. O₂ by-product. Water splitting.PS II keeps losing electrons, so it needs a steady supply. These electrons come from splitting water: 2H₂O → 4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e⁻. The water-splitting complex is linked with PS II, which sits on the inner side of the thylakoid membrane. So the protons (H⁺) and O₂ are formed inside the lumen (the space inside the thylakoid). O₂ is given out as a by-product (an extra product). 👉 Water splitting
11.6.2Cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylationचक्रीय और अचक्रीय प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशनCyclic aur non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Synthesis of ATP from ADP + Pi in the presence of light is photophosphorylation. When both PS II and PS I work in series (Z scheme), electrons are not returned: non-cyclic photophosphorylation — it forms ATP and NADPH + H⁺ and releases O₂. When only PS I is functional, the electron circulates within the photosystem and back via the ETS: cyclic photophosphorylation — it occurs in the stroma lamellae, which have PS I but lack PS II and NADP reductase; it forms only ATP, no NADPH and no O₂. It may also occur when only light of wavelengths beyond 680 nm is available.प्रकाश में ADP + Pi से ATP बनना प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन है। जब PS II और PS I दोनों क्रम से (Z योजना) कार्य करते और इलेक्ट्रॉन वापस नहीं आते — अचक्रीय प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन: ATP और NADPH + H⁺ बनते, O₂ मुक्त। जब केवल PS I सक्रिय, इलेक्ट्रॉन घूमकर ETS से वापस — चक्रीय प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन: पीठिका पटलिकाओं में, जिनमें PS I है पर PS II व NADP रिडक्टेज़ नहीं; केवल ATP बनता, NADPH व O₂ नहीं। यह 680 nm से अधिक तरंगदैर्घ्य के प्रकाश में भी होता है।Non-cyclic: PS II + PS I, ATP + NADPH + O₂. Cyclic: sirf PS I, stroma lamellae mein (PS II, NADP reductase nahi), sirf ATP; >680 nm light mein bhi.Making ATP from ADP + Pi using light is called photophosphorylation. When both PS II and PS I work one after the other (Z scheme), the electrons do not come back to where they started. This is non-cyclic photophosphorylation. It makes ATP and NADPH + H⁺ and gives out O₂. When only PS I works, the electron goes round in a circle — out of the photosystem and back again through the ETS. This is cyclic photophosphorylation. It happens in the stroma lamellae, which have PS I but no PS II and no NADP reductase. It makes only ATP — no NADPH and no O₂. It can also happen when only light of wavelengths beyond 680 nm is available.
11.6.3Chemiosmotic hypothesisरसोपरासरण परिकल्पनाChemiosmotic hypothesis
ATP synthesis is linked to a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, with protons accumulating inside the lumen: (1) water splitting on the inner side releases H⁺ into the lumen; (2) as electrons move through the photosystems, protons are carried across the membrane (the primary acceptor is on the outer side and passes electrons to an H carrier, which takes a proton from the stroma and releases it into the lumen); (3) NADP reductase on the stroma side uses H⁺ from the stroma to reduce NADP⁺. So H⁺ falls in the stroma and rises in the lumen — a gradient and a measurable pH fall in the lumen. Breakdown of the gradient through the ATPase (CF₀ + CF₁) releases energy: CF₀ is embedded in the membrane and forms a transmembrane channel for facilitated diffusion of protons; CF₁ protrudes into the stroma and changes conformation to synthesise ATP. ATP and NADPH are used immediately in the stroma for CO₂ fixation.ATP संश्लेषण थाइलेकॉइड झिल्ली के आर-पार प्रोटॉन प्रवणता से जुड़ा, प्रोटॉन ल्यूमेन के भीतर एकत्र: (1) भीतरी ओर जल विघटन से H⁺ ल्यूमेन में; (2) इलेक्ट्रॉन प्रवाह के साथ प्रोटॉन झिल्ली के पार ले जाए जाते (H वाहक पीठिका से प्रोटॉन लेकर ल्यूमेन में छोड़ता); (3) पीठिका की ओर स्थित NADP रिडक्टेज़ पीठिका के H⁺ से NADP⁺ अपचयित करता। अतः पीठिका में H⁺ घटते, ल्यूमेन में बढ़ते — प्रवणता और ल्यूमेन में pH में गिरावट। प्रवणता का टूटना ATPase (CF₀ + CF₁) से ऊर्जा देता: CF₀ झिल्ली में धँसा, प्रोटॉनों के सुगम विसरण हेतु पारझिल्ली चैनल; CF₁ पीठिका की ओर उभरा, संरचना बदलकर ATP बनाता। ATP और NADPH पीठिका में तुरंत CO₂ स्थिरीकरण में।Thylakoid lumen mein H⁺ jama (water split, carriers, NADP reductase stroma side) → proton gradient. H⁺ CF₀ channel se bahar → CF₁ ATP banata.ATP is made because of a proton gradient (more H⁺ on one side) across the thylakoid membrane. Protons collect inside the lumen in three ways: (1) water is split on the inner side, so H⁺ is released into the lumen; (2) as electrons move through the photosystems, protons are carried across the membrane — the first acceptor is on the outer side and gives electrons to an H carrier, which takes a proton from the stroma and releases it into the lumen; (3) NADP reductase on the stroma side uses H⁺ from the stroma to reduce NADP⁺. So H⁺ goes down in the stroma and up in the lumen. This makes a gradient, and the pH in the lumen falls (it becomes more acidic). When the protons flow back through the ATPase (CF₀ + CF₁), energy is released. CF₀ sits inside the membrane and forms a channel across the membrane through which protons pass. CF₁ sticks out into the stroma and changes its shape to make ATP. The ATP and NADPH are used straight away in the stroma to fix CO₂.
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11.7Where are the ATP and NADPH used?ATP और NADPH कहाँ उपयोग होते हैं?ATP-NADPH kahan use?
In the biosynthetic phase (stroma), CO₂ and H₂O are combined using ATP and NADPH to form sugars. This phase does not directly depend on light but on the products of the light reaction. Melvin Calvin, with J.A. Bassham, used radioactive ¹⁴C in algal photosynthesis and found that the first CO₂ fixation product is a 3-carbon organic acid — 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). Plants where the first product is a C₃ acid are C₃ plants; plants where the first product is oxaloacetic acid (OAA, 4C) are C₄ plants.जैव-संश्लेषी चरण (पीठिका) में ATP और NADPH की सहायता से CO₂ और H₂O से शर्करा बनती। यह चरण सीधे प्रकाश पर नहीं, प्रकाश अभिक्रिया के उत्पादों पर निर्भर। मेल्विन केल्विन ने जे.ए. बैशम के साथ शैवाल में रेडियोधर्मी ¹⁴C से पाया कि CO₂ स्थिरीकरण का पहला उत्पाद 3-कार्बन अम्ल — 3-फ़ॉस्फ़ोग्लिसरिक अम्ल (PGA) है। जिनमें पहला उत्पाद C₃ अम्ल — C₃ पादप; जिनमें ऑक्सैलोऐसीटिक अम्ल (OAA, 4C) — C₄ पादप।Stroma mein ATP + NADPH se sugar. Calvin + Bassham — ¹⁴C se: pehla product 3-PGA (3C) → C₃ plants; OAA (4C) → C₄ plants.In the biosynthetic phase (in the stroma), CO₂ and H₂O are joined to make sugars, using ATP and NADPH. This phase does not need light directly, but it needs the products of the light reaction. Melvin Calvin and J.A. Bassham used radioactive ¹⁴C in algae and found that the first product of CO₂ fixation is a 3-carbon organic acid — 3-phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). Plants whose first product is this C₃ acid are called C₃ plants. Plants whose first product is oxaloacetic acid (OAA, 4C) are called C₄ plants.
11.7.1The primary acceptor of CO₂CO₂ का प्राथमिक ग्राहीCO₂ ka primary acceptor
The acceptor in C₃ plants turned out to be a 5-carbon ketose sugar — ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), not a 2-carbon molecule as first guessed.C₃ पादपों में ग्राही 5-कार्बन कीटोज़ शर्करा — राइबुलोज़ बिसफ़ॉस्फ़ेट (RuBP) निकली, न कि पहले अनुमानित 2-कार्बन अणु।C₃ mein acceptor = RuBP (5C ketose sugar).In C₃ plants, the molecule that accepts CO₂ turned out to be a 5-carbon ketose sugar called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). Scientists had first guessed it was a 2-carbon molecule.
11.7.2The Calvin cycleकेल्विन चक्रCalvin cycle
The Calvin pathway occurs in all photosynthetic plants, C₃ or C₄. It has three stages: (1) Carboxylation — fixation of CO₂ into a stable organic intermediate: RuBP + CO₂ → 2 molecules of 3-PGA, catalysed by RuBisCO (RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase); the most crucial step. (2) Reduction — a series of reactions forming glucose; uses 2 ATP for phosphorylation and 2 NADPH for reduction per CO₂ fixed; six turns are needed to fix 6 CO₂ for one glucose. (3) Regeneration of RuBP — needs 1 ATP per CO₂. So each CO₂ needs 3 ATP + 2 NADPH; one glucose needs 6 turns, 18 ATP and 12 NADPH (the extra ATP over the light reaction ratio is one reason cyclic photophosphorylation exists). Carboxylation, regeneration.केल्विन पथ सभी प्रकाश-संश्लेषी पादपों (C₃ या C₄) में। तीन चरण: (1) कार्बोक्सिलीकरण — CO₂ का स्थायी मध्यवर्ती में स्थिरीकरण: RuBP + CO₂ → 3-PGA के 2 अणु, RuBisCO (RuBP कार्बोक्सिलेज़-ऑक्सीजिनेज़) द्वारा; सबसे महत्वपूर्ण चरण। (2) अपचयन — ग्लूकोज़ बनने की अभिक्रियाएँ; प्रति CO₂ 2 ATP फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन व 2 NADPH अपचयन हेतु; एक ग्लूकोज़ के लिए 6 चक्कर। (3) RuBP का पुनर्जनन — प्रति CO₂ 1 ATP। अतः प्रति CO₂ 3 ATP + 2 NADPH; एक ग्लूकोज़ हेतु 6 चक्कर, 18 ATP और 12 NADPH। कार्बोक्सिलीकरण, पुनर्जनन।Sab plants mein. Carboxylation (RuBP + CO₂ → 2 PGA, RuBisCO), Reduction (2 ATP + 2 NADPH/CO₂), Regeneration (1 ATP/CO₂). 1 glucose = 6 CO₂, 18 ATP, 12 NADPH. Carboxylation, regeneration.The Calvin cycle happens in all photosynthetic plants, whether C₃ or C₄. It has three stages. (1) Carboxylation — CO₂ is fixed into a stable organic compound: RuBP + CO₂ → 2 molecules of 3-PGA. The enzyme is RuBisCO (RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase). This is the most important step. (2) Reduction — a series of reactions that lead to glucose. For each CO₂ fixed, it uses 2 ATP (for phosphorylation) and 2 NADPH (for reduction). To make one glucose, 6 CO₂ must be fixed, so the cycle turns six times. (3) regeneration of RuBP — this needs 1 ATP per CO₂, so the cycle can continue. So each CO₂ needs 3 ATP + 2 NADPH, and one glucose needs 6 turns, 18 ATP and 12 NADPH. The cycle needs more ATP than the light reaction's ratio gives, and this is one reason cyclic photophosphorylation exists.
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11.8The C₄ pathwayC₄ पथC₄ pathway
Plants adapted to dry tropical regions (maize, sorghum) have the C₄ pathway: the first product is OAA (4C), but they still use the Calvin cycle as the main biosynthetic pathway. They tolerate higher temperatures, respond to high light intensities, lack photorespiration and have greater biomass productivity. Their leaves show Kranz anatomy — large bundle sheath cells around the vascular bundles with many chloroplasts, thick gas-impervious walls and no intercellular spaces. In the mesophyll, the primary acceptor phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP, 3C) fixes CO₂ by PEP carboxylase (PEPcase) → OAA; mesophyll cells lack RuBisCO. OAA forms malic or aspartic acid, which moves to the bundle sheath, is broken down to release CO₂ and a 3-carbon molecule; the CO₂ enters the Calvin cycle (bundle sheath cells are rich in RuBisCO but lack PEPcase); the 3C molecule returns to the mesophyll to form PEP again. This is the Hatch and Slack pathway. PEPcase, bundle sheath.शुष्क उष्णकटिबंधीय क्षेत्रों के पादप (मक्का, ज्वार) में C₄ पथ: पहला उत्पाद OAA (4C), पर मुख्य जैव-संश्लेषी पथ केल्विन चक्र ही। ये उच्च ताप सहते, तीव्र प्रकाश पर अनुक्रिया करते, प्रकाश श्वसन नहीं और अधिक जैवभार उत्पादकता। पत्तियों में क्रांज़ शारीरिकी — संवहन बंडलों के चारों ओर बड़ी पूलाच्छद कोशिकाएँ, अनेक हरितलवक, गैस-अपारगम्य मोटी भित्ति, अंतराकोशिकीय अवकाश नहीं। पर्णमध्योतक में प्राथमिक ग्राही फ़ॉस्फ़ोइनॉल पाइरुवेट (PEP, 3C), PEP कार्बोक्सिलेज़ (PEPcase) से CO₂ स्थिर → OAA; पर्णमध्योतक में RuBisCO नहीं। OAA से मैलिक या ऐस्पार्टिक अम्ल, पूलाच्छद में जाकर CO₂ और 3-कार्बन अणु में टूटता; CO₂ केल्विन चक्र में (पूलाच्छद में RuBisCO प्रचुर, PEPcase नहीं); 3C अणु पर्णमध्योतक में लौटकर PEP बनाता। यही हैच और स्लैक पथ है। PEPcase, पूलाच्छद।Dry tropical plants (maize, sorghum): pehla product OAA. High temp/light, no photorespiration, zyada productivity. Kranz anatomy. Mesophyll: PEP + CO₂ → OAA (PEPcase), RuBisCO nahi → malic/aspartic → bundle sheath mein CO₂ → Calvin cycle. Hatch-Slack pathway. PEPcase, bundle sheath.Plants suited to dry tropical areas (like maize and sorghum) use the C₄ pathway. Their first product is OAA (4C), but they still use the Calvin cycle as their main food-making pathway. They can bear higher temperatures, respond well to strong light, have no photorespiration and make more biomass (more plant material). Their leaves have Kranz anatomy: large bundle sheath cells around the vascular bundles. These cells have many chloroplasts, thick walls that gases cannot pass, and no spaces between cells. In the mesophyll cells, the first CO₂ acceptor is phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP, 3C). It fixes CO₂ with the enzyme PEP carboxylase (PEPcase) to form OAA. Mesophyll cells do not have RuBisCO. OAA becomes malic acid or aspartic acid, which moves to the bundle sheath cells. There it is broken down to give CO₂ and a 3-carbon molecule. The CO₂ enters the Calvin cycle (bundle sheath cells have lots of RuBisCO but no PEPcase). The 3C molecule goes back to the mesophyll and becomes PEP again. This is the Hatch and Slack pathway.
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11.9Photorespirationप्रकाश श्वसनPhotorespiration
RuBisCO, the most abundant enzyme in the world, can bind both CO₂ and O₂ at its active site — hence carboxylase-oxygenase. It has a much greater affinity for CO₂ when the CO₂ : O₂ ratio is nearly equal, so binding is competitive and the relative concentration decides which is bound. In C₃ plants some O₂ binds RuBisCO: RuBP + O₂ → 1 phosphoglycerate + 1 phosphoglycolate — this is photorespiration. There is no synthesis of sugars, ATP or NADPH; it actually uses ATP and releases CO₂ — a wasteful process. In C₄ plants photorespiration does not occur: their mechanism raises CO₂ concentration at the enzyme site (C₄ acid broken in the bundle sheath), so RuBisCO works mainly as a carboxylase — this is why C₄ plants are more productive.दुनिया का सबसे प्रचुर एंजाइम RuBisCO अपने सक्रिय स्थल पर CO₂ और O₂ दोनों बाँध सकता — इसलिए कार्बोक्सिलेज़-ऑक्सीजिनेज़। CO₂ : O₂ लगभग बराबर हो तो CO₂ के प्रति कहीं अधिक बंधुता; बंधन स्पर्धी, आपेक्षिक सांद्रता तय करती है। C₃ पादपों में कुछ O₂ RuBisCO से जुड़ती: RuBP + O₂ → 1 फ़ॉस्फ़ोग्लिसरेट + 1 फ़ॉस्फ़ोग्लाइकोलेट — यही प्रकाश श्वसन। इसमें न शर्करा, न ATP, न NADPH बनते; उलटे ATP उपयोग होता और CO₂ निकलती — व्यर्थ प्रक्रिया। C₄ पादपों में प्रकाश श्वसन नहीं होता: पूलाच्छद में C₄ अम्ल टूटकर एंजाइम के पास CO₂ बढ़ाता, अतः RuBisCO मुख्यतः कार्बोक्सिलेज़ — इसीलिए C₄ अधिक उत्पादक।RuBisCO CO₂ aur O₂ dono baandh sakta (CO₂ se zyada affinity). C₃ mein O₂ jude → RuBP + O₂ → PGA + phosphoglycolate = photorespiration — sugar/ATP/NADPH nahi, ATP kharch, wasteful. C₄ mein nahi (CO₂ zyada).RuBisCO is the most common enzyme in the world. Its active site can bind both CO₂ and O₂, so it is called carboxylase-oxygenase. It likes CO₂ much more than O₂ when the two are present in nearly equal amounts. The two compete, so their relative amounts decide which one binds. In C₃ plants, some O₂ does bind to RuBisCO: RuBP + O₂ → 1 phosphoglycerate + 1 phosphoglycolate. This is photorespiration. It makes no sugar, no ATP and no NADPH. Instead, it uses up ATP and gives out CO₂ — so it is a wasteful process. In C₄ plants, photorespiration does not happen. They raise the amount of CO₂ around the enzyme (the C₄ acid is broken in the bundle sheath to release CO₂). So RuBisCO works mainly as a carboxylase. That is why C₄ plants are more productive.
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11.10Factors affecting photosynthesisप्रकाश-संश्लेषण को प्रभावित करने वाले कारकPhotosynthesis ke factors
Rate depends on internal (plant) factors — number, size, age and orientation of leaves, mesophyll cells and chloroplasts, internal CO₂, amount of chlorophyll — and external factors — sunlight, temperature, CO₂ concentration and water. Blackman’s (1905) Law of Limiting Factors: if a chemical process is affected by more than one factor, its rate is determined by the factor nearest its minimal value — the factor that directly affects the process if its quantity is changed.दर आंतरिक (पादप) कारकों — पत्तियों की संख्या, आकार, आयु, दिशा, पर्णमध्योतक कोशिकाएँ व हरितलवक, आंतरिक CO₂, क्लोरोफ़िल की मात्रा — और बाह्य कारकों — सूर्य प्रकाश, ताप, CO₂ सांद्रता और जल — पर निर्भर। ब्लैकमैन (1905) का सीमाकारी कारकों का नियम: यदि किसी रासायनिक प्रक्रिया पर एक से अधिक कारक प्रभाव डालें तो दर उस कारक से तय होती है जो अपने न्यूनतम मान के सबसे निकट हो।Internal (leaf, chlorophyll) + external (light, temperature, CO₂, water). Blackman 1905: jo factor minimum ke sabse paas, wahi rate tay karta.The rate of photosynthesis depends on internal (plant) factors and external factors. Internal factors: the number, size, age and direction of leaves; the mesophyll cells and chloroplasts; the CO₂ inside the leaf; and the amount of chlorophyll. External factors: sunlight, temperature, CO₂ concentration and water. Blackman’s (1905) Law of Limiting Factors says: if a chemical process is affected by more than one factor, its rate depends on the factor that is closest to its minimum value. This is the factor that will directly change the rate if its amount is changed.
- Light — at low intensities the rate rises linearly with light; at higher intensities it levels off as other factors limit. Light saturation occurs at about 10% of full sunlight, so light is rarely limiting except in shade or dense forests; very high light can break down chlorophyll and lower photosynthesis. Saturation.प्रकाश — कम तीव्रता पर दर प्रकाश के साथ रैखिक बढ़ती; अधिक पर स्थिर। प्रकाश संतृप्ति पूर्ण सूर्य प्रकाश के लगभग 10% पर, अतः छाया व घने वनों को छोड़ प्रकाश प्रायः सीमाकारी नहीं; बहुत तीव्र प्रकाश क्लोरोफ़िल नष्ट कर दर घटा सकता। संतृप्ति।Light — saturation ~10% sunlight; bahut tez light chlorophyll tod sakti. Saturation.
- CO₂ concentration — the major limiting factor; atmospheric CO₂ is very low (0.03–0.04%). Raising it up to 0.05% increases fixation; beyond that it can be damaging over long periods. C₃ plants respond to higher CO₂ and saturate only beyond 450 µL L⁻¹; C₄ plants saturate at about 360 µL L⁻¹ — current levels are limiting for C₃. Greenhouse crops such as tomatoes and bell pepper are grown in CO₂-enriched air for higher yields.CO₂ सांद्रता — प्रमुख सीमाकारी कारक; वायुमंडल में बहुत कम (0.03–0.04%)। 0.05% तक बढ़ाने पर स्थिरीकरण बढ़ता; उससे अधिक लंबे समय में हानिकारक। C₃ उच्च CO₂ पर अनुक्रिया, संतृप्ति 450 µL L⁻¹ के बाद; C₄ लगभग 360 µL L⁻¹ पर संतृप्त। ग्रीनहाउस में टमाटर, शिमला मिर्च CO₂-समृद्ध वायु में।CO₂ — main limiting (0.03–0.04%); 0.05% tak faayda. C₃ saturation >450 µL/L, C₄ ~360 µL/L. Greenhouse tomato, bell pepper.
- Temperature — the dark (enzymatic) reactions are temperature-controlled; light reactions are less sensitive. C₄ plants have a higher temperature optimum than C₃; tropical plants have higher optima than temperate ones.ताप — अंधकार (एंजाइमी) अभिक्रियाएँ ताप-नियंत्रित; प्रकाश अभिक्रियाएँ कम संवेदी। C₄ का इष्टतम ताप C₃ से अधिक; उष्णकटिबंधीय पादपों का शीतोष्ण से अधिक।Temperature — dark reaction pe asar; C₄ ka optimum zyada.
- Water — affects photosynthesis indirectly: water stress closes stomata, reducing CO₂ availability, and makes leaves wilt, reducing surface area and metabolic activity.जल — अप्रत्यक्ष प्रभाव: जल की कमी से रंध्र बंद, CO₂ कम; पत्तियाँ मुरझाती, सतह और उपापचय घटते।Water — indirect: stomata band, leaf wilt.
Didn’t get this part?समझ नहीं आया?Samajh nahi aaya?
★ Yaad rakho — quick revision★ याद रखो — झटपट दोहराव★ Yaad rakho — quick revision
- 6CO₂ + 12H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6H₂O + 6O₂; O₂ comes from water (van Niel).6CO₂ + 12H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6H₂O + 6O₂; O₂ जल से (वैन नील)।O₂ paani se.
- Light reaction in grana/thylakoids (ATP, NADPH, O₂); biosynthetic phase in stroma.प्रकाश अभिक्रिया ग्रेना/थाइलेकॉइड में (ATP, NADPH, O₂); जैव-संश्लेषी चरण पीठिका में।Grana = light, stroma = dark.
- PS I → P700, PS II → P680; reaction centre = chlorophyll a.PS I → P700, PS II → P680; अभिक्रिया केंद्र = क्लोरोफ़िल a।P700 / P680.
- Non-cyclic: PS II + PS I → ATP + NADPH + O₂. Cyclic: only PS I, stroma lamellae → only ATP.अचक्रीय: PS II + PS I → ATP + NADPH + O₂। चक्रीय: केवल PS I, पीठिका पटलिकाएँ → केवल ATP।Cyclic = sirf ATP.
- ATP synthase: CF₀ = proton channel in membrane, CF₁ = makes ATP on stroma side; H⁺ high in lumen.ATP सिंथेज़: CF₀ = झिल्ली में प्रोटॉन चैनल, CF₁ = पीठिका की ओर ATP; ल्यूमेन में H⁺ अधिक।CF₀ channel, CF₁ ATP.
- Calvin cycle: carboxylation (RuBisCO), reduction, regeneration; 1 glucose = 6 CO₂, 18 ATP, 12 NADPH.केल्विन चक्र: कार्बोक्सिलीकरण (RuBisCO), अपचयन, पुनर्जनन; 1 ग्लूकोज़ = 6 CO₂, 18 ATP, 12 NADPH।18 ATP, 12 NADPH.
- C₃ acceptor RuBP (5C) → PGA (3C); C₄ acceptor PEP (3C) → OAA (4C) by PEPcase in mesophyll.C₃ ग्राही RuBP (5C) → PGA (3C); C₄ ग्राही PEP (3C) → OAA (4C), पर्णमध्योतक में PEPcase।RuBP vs PEP.
- Kranz anatomy = bundle sheath wreath; C₄ = maize, sorghum; no photorespiration.क्रांज़ शारीरिकी = पूलाच्छद माला; C₄ = मक्का, ज्वार; प्रकाश श्वसन नहीं।Kranz, no photorespiration.
- Light saturation ≈ 10% of full sunlight; CO₂ is the major limiting factor (C₃ saturate > 450, C₄ ≈ 360 µL L⁻¹).प्रकाश संतृप्ति ≈ पूर्ण सूर्य प्रकाश का 10%; CO₂ प्रमुख सीमाकारी (C₃ > 450, C₄ ≈ 360 µL L⁻¹)।10% light; CO₂ main.
⚠ Common mistakes⚠ आम गलतियाँ⚠ Common mistakes
- Saying O₂ released in photosynthesis comes from CO₂ — it comes from water splitting at PS II.O₂ को CO₂ से आई बताना — यह PS II पर जल विघटन से आती है।O₂ paani se.
- Calling the dark reaction one that happens only at night — it needs no light directly but runs in daytime using ATP and NADPH from the light reaction.अंधकार अभिक्रिया को केवल रात में होने वाली बताना — यह सीधे प्रकाश नहीं चाहती पर दिन में प्रकाश अभिक्रिया के ATP-NADPH से चलती है।Dark reaction raat wali nahi.
- Thinking PS I was discovered first because it works first — names follow discovery order; the electron path starts at PS II.PS I को पहले कार्य करने वाला मानना — नाम खोज के क्रम में; इलेक्ट्रॉन पथ PS II से शुरू।Path PS II se shuru.
- Saying C₄ plants do not use the Calvin cycle — they do, in the bundle sheath; C₄ only adds a CO₂-concentrating step.C₄ में केल्विन चक्र नहीं मानना — पूलाच्छद में होता है; C₄ केवल CO₂ सांद्रण चरण जोड़ता है।C₄ mein bhi Calvin.
- Putting RuBisCO in C₄ mesophyll — mesophyll has PEPcase; RuBisCO is in the bundle sheath.C₄ पर्णमध्योतक में RuBisCO बताना — वहाँ PEPcase; RuBisCO पूलाच्छद में।Mesophyll = PEPcase.
- Saying photorespiration makes ATP — it makes no sugar, ATP or NADPH and actually uses ATP.प्रकाश श्वसन से ATP बनना कहना — न शर्करा, न ATP, न NADPH; उलटे ATP खर्च।Photorespiration wasteful.
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1. By looking at a plant externally, can you tell whether a plant is C₃ or C₄? Why and how?1. पौधे को बाहर से देखकर क्या बता सकते हैं कि वह C₃ है या C₄? क्यों और कैसे?1. Bahar se C₃/C₄?
2. By looking at which internal structure of a plant can you tell whether a plant is C₃ or C₄? Explain.2. पौधे की किस आंतरिक संरचना को देखकर C₃ या C₄ बता सकते हैं? समझाइए।2. Kaunsi internal structure?
3. Even though a very few cells in a C₄ plant carry out the biosynthetic – Calvin pathway, yet they are highly productive. Can you discuss why?3. C₄ पौधे की बहुत कम कोशिकाएँ केल्विन पथ चलाती हैं, फिर भी वे अधिक उत्पादक हैं। क्यों?3. C₄ zyada productive kyon?
4. RuBisCO is an enzyme that acts both as a carboxylase and oxygenase. Why do you think RuBisCO carries out more carboxylation in C₄ plants?4. RuBisCO कार्बोक्सिलेज़ और ऑक्सीजिनेज़ दोनों है। C₄ पौधों में यह अधिक कार्बोक्सिलीकरण क्यों करता है?4. C₄ mein carboxylation zyada kyon?
5. Suppose there were plants that had a high concentration of chlorophyll b, but lacked chlorophyll a, would it carry out photosynthesis? Then why do plants have chlorophyll b and other accessory pigments?5. यदि किसी पौधे में क्लोरोफ़िल b अधिक हो पर क्लोरोफ़िल a न हो, तो क्या वह प्रकाश-संश्लेषण करेगा? फिर पौधों में क्लोरोफ़िल b और सहायक वर्णक क्यों होते हैं?5. Sirf chl b ho toh?
6. Why is the colour of a leaf kept in the dark frequently yellow, or pale green? Which pigment do you think is more stable?6. अंधेरे में रखी पत्ती प्रायः पीली या हल्की हरी क्यों हो जाती है? कौन-सा वर्णक अधिक स्थायी है?6. Andhere mein patta peela kyon?
7. Look at leaves of the same plant on the shady side and compare it with the leaves on the sunny side. Or, compare the potted plants kept in the sunlight with those in the shade. Which of them has leaves that are darker green? Why?7. एक ही पौधे की छायादार और धूप वाली ओर की पत्तियों (या धूप व छाया में रखे गमलों) की तुलना कीजिए। किसकी पत्तियाँ गहरी हरी हैं? क्यों?7. Shade vs sun leaves.
8. Figure 11.10 shows the effect of light on the rate of photosynthesis. Based on the graph: (a) At which point/s (A, B or C) in the curve is light a limiting factor? (b) What could be the limiting factor/s in region A? (c) What do C and D represent on the curve?8. चित्र 11.10 प्रकाश का प्रकाश-संश्लेषण की दर पर प्रभाव दिखाता है: (a) वक्र के किस बिंदु (A, B या C) पर प्रकाश सीमाकारी है? (b) क्षेत्र A में सीमाकारी कारक क्या हो सकते हैं? (c) C और D क्या दर्शाते हैं?8. Graph A, B, C, D.
9. Give comparison between the following: (a) C₃ and C₄ pathways (b) Cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation (c) Anatomy of leaf in C₃ and C₄ plants9. तुलना कीजिए: (a) C₃ और C₄ पथ (b) चक्रीय और अचक्रीय प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन (c) C₃ और C₄ पादपों की पत्ती की शारीरिकी9. Comparisons.
🎯 Quiz — 14 questions🎯 क्विज़ — 14 प्रश्न🎯 Quiz — 14 questions
Tap an option. The answer and a short reason appear at once.किसी विकल्प पर टैप करें। उत्तर और छोटा कारण तुरंत दिखेगा।Kisi option par tap kijiye. Answer aur chhota reason turant dikhega.
1. Oxygen released in photosynthesis comes from …प्रकाश-संश्लेषण में मुक्त O₂ कहाँ से आती है?O₂ kahan se?
2. Engelmann used the alga …एंगेलमान ने कौन-सा शैवाल प्रयोग किया?Engelmann ka alga?
3. The reaction centre of PS II is …PS II का अभिक्रिया केंद्र …PS II centre?
4. Cyclic photophosphorylation produces …चक्रीय प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन से बनता है …Cyclic product?
5. Cyclic photophosphorylation takes place in the …चक्रीय प्रकाश फ़ॉस्फ़ोरिलेशन कहाँ होता है?Cyclic kahan?
6. In chemiosmosis, protons accumulate in the …रसोपरासरण में प्रोटॉन कहाँ एकत्र होते हैं?H⁺ kahan jama?
7. The first stable product of CO₂ fixation in C₃ plants is …C₃ पादपों में CO₂ स्थिरीकरण का पहला स्थायी उत्पाद …C₃ pehla product?
8. To make one glucose, the Calvin cycle needs …एक ग्लूकोज़ के लिए केल्विन चक्र को चाहिए …1 glucose = ?
9. The primary CO₂ acceptor in C₄ plants is …C₄ पादपों में प्राथमिक CO₂ ग्राही …C₄ acceptor?
10. Kranz anatomy is typical of …क्रांज़ शारीरिकी किसकी विशेषता है?Kranz kiska?
11. In C₄ plants, RuBisCO is present in …C₄ पादपों में RuBisCO कहाँ होता है?C₄ RuBisCO kahan?
12. In photorespiration, RuBP + O₂ gives …प्रकाश श्वसन में RuBP + O₂ से बनता है …Photorespiration product?
13. Light saturation of photosynthesis occurs at about … of full sunlight.प्रकाश संतृप्ति पूर्ण सूर्य प्रकाश के लगभग … पर।Saturation?
14. Blackman’s law of limiting factors was given in …ब्लैकमैन का सीमाकारी कारकों का नियम …Blackman year?
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These are Simple Learning Hub's own study notes written to follow the NCERT Class 11 Biology textbook (2026-27 reprint of the rationalised edition) section by section; read them with the official NCERT chapter. Diagrams are original SLH drawings based on the NCERT figures they name.ये Simple Learning Hub के अपने स्टडी नोट्स हैं, जो NCERT कक्षा 11 जीव विज्ञान की किताब (2026-27) के हर अनुभाग के साथ लिखे गए हैं; इन्हें NCERT के आधिकारिक अध्याय के साथ पढ़िए। डायग्राम SLH के अपने बनाए चित्र हैं।Ye Simple Learning Hub ke apne study notes hain, jo NCERT Class 11 Biology ki kitaab (2026-27) ke har section ke saath likhe gaye hain; inhe NCERT ke official chapter ke saath padhiye. Diagrams SLH ki apni drawings hain.